The Elementary Mathematical Model 35

2.8.3 Equal area criterion for a two-machine system

It can be shown that the equal area criterion applies to any two-machine system
since a two-machine system can be reduced to an equivalent system of one machine
connected to an infinite bus (see Problem 2.14). We can show that the expression for the equal
area criterion in this case is given by

J 612
6 120
(Pal _ Pa 2 ) dlJ
HI H2
12
= 0 (2.52)

°
where lJ 12 = lJ, - 2 -
In the special case where the resistance is neglected, (2.52) becomes
12
_1_ J6 Pal dlJ 12 = 0
Ho 6120

2.9 Classical Model of a Multimachine System

The same assumptions used for a system of one machine connected to an infinite
bus are often assumed valid for a multimachine system:

I. Mechanical power input is constant.

2. Damping or asynchronous power is negligible.
3. Constant-voltage-behind-transient-reactance model for the synchronous machines
is valid.
4. The mechanical rotor angle of a machine coincides with the angle of the voltage
behind the transient reactance.
5. Loads are represented by passive impedances.
This model is useful for stability analysis but is limited to the study of transients for
only the "first swing" or for periods on the order of one second.
Assumption 2 is improved upon somewhat by assuming a linear damping character-
istic. A damping torque (or power) Dw is frequently added to the inertial torque (or
power) in the swing equation. The damping coefficient D includes the various damping
torque components, both mechanical and electrical. Values of the damping coefficient
usually used in stability studies are in the range of 1-3 pu [9, 10, 11, 12]. This repre-
sents turbine damping, generator electrical damping, and the damping effect of electrical
loads. However, much larger damping coefficients, up to 25 pu, are reported in the
literature due to generator damping alone [7, 13].
Assumption 5, suggesting load representation by a constant impedance, is made for
convenience in many classical studies. Loads have their own dynamic behavior, which
is usually not precisely known and varies from constant impedance to constant MV A.
This is a subject of considerable speculation, the major point of agreement being that
constant impedance is an inadequate representation. Load representation can have a
marked effect on stability results.
The electrical network obtained for an n-machine system is as shown in Figure 2.17.
Node 0 is the reference node (neutral). Nodes 1,2, ... .n are the internal machine buses,
or the buses to which the voltages behind transient reactances are applied. Passive
impedances connect the various nodes and connect the nodes to the reference at load
buses. As in the one-machine system, the initial values of E" £2"'" En are de-
termined from the pretransient conditions. Thus a load-flow study for pretransient
36 Chapter 2

n -machine system

n generators

'1 f j X ~l1 Transm ission

sy ste m r constant
impedance loads

I
,_ _ J

I
I + 1_--
1
1 I
1 - I
I_ _ J' I
I -T I
I L, I
I +
I
I I I
I -I '-- --I
I
~_J
+ I
I
1L N~aO _ I

Fig. 2.17 Representation or a muhimachine system (classical model).

conditions is needed. The magnitudes £;, i = I, 2, .. . , n are held constant dur-

ing the transient in classical stability studies.
The passive electrical network described above has n nodes with active sources. The
admittance matrix of the n-port network, looking into the network from the terminals
of the generators. is defined by

(2.53)

where Y has the diagonal elements Vii and the off-diagonal elements Y;j' By definition.

Y;; Y;; IJ..n.. = driving point admittance for node i

o, + j s,
'Vij Y;i & = negative of the transfer admittance between nodes i andj
a, + j s, (2.54)

The power into the network at node i, which is the electrical power output of machine i,
is given by P; = eRe El;*

L
n

Pd = £1 o, + EjEj Yij cos (8(i - 0; + OJ) i = 1,2, . . . ,n

j-I
j~;

E1 c, + L EjEj[B;j sin (0/ - 0) + c, cos (OJ - OJ)] i = 1,2, .. . , n (2.55)

j-I
j.,J;
 The Elementary Mathematical Model 37

The equations of motion are then given by

2H.' -
-
WR
de.' + D,.W,.
dl
Pm; - [2E; G;; + ~
~ E;E ~j
1=1
j COS J
(0;; - 0; + OJ)
j~;

do;
i = 1,2, ... ,n (2.56)
dt
It should be noted that prior to the disturbance (t = 0-) Pm;o = PeW
n

Pm;o = E; Gii O + L
j=l
E;E; Y;jO cos (OijO - Ow + 0;0) (2.57)
j~;

The subscript 0 is used to indicate the pretransient conditions. This applies to all
machine rotor angles and also to the network parameters, since the network changes
due to switching during the fault.
The set of equations (2.56) is a set of n-coupled nonlinear second-order differential
equations. These can be written in the form
x = f( x, X o, t ) (2.58)
where x is a vector of dimension (2n x I),
(2.59)
and f is a set of nonlinear functions of the elements of the state vector x.

2.10 Classical Stability Study of a Nine-bus System

The classical model of a synchronous machine may be used to study the stability of
a power system for a period of time during which the system dynamic response is de-
pendent largely on the stored kinetic energy in the rotating masses. For many power
systems this time is on the order of one second or less. The classical model is the
simplest model used in studies of power system dynamics and requires a minimum
amount of data: hence, such studies can be conducted in a relatively short time and at
minimum cost. Furthermore, these studies can provide useful information. For ex-
ample, they may be used as preliminary studies to identify problem areas that require
further study with more detailed modeling. Thus a large number of cases for which the
system exhibits a definitely stable dynamic response to the disturbances under study are
eliminated from further consideration.
A classical study will be presented here on a small nine-bus power system that has
three generators and three loads. A one-line impedance diagram for the system is given
in Figure 2.18. The prefault normal load-flow solution is given in Figure 2.19. Gen-
erator data for the three machines are given in Table 2.). This system, while small, is
large enough to be nontrivial and thus permits the illustration of a number of stability
concepts and results.

2.10.1 Data preparation

In the performance of a transient stability study, the following data are needed:
I. A load-flow study of the pretransient network to determine the mechanical power Pm
of the generators and to calculate the values of E;& for all the generators. The
equivalent impedances of the loads are obtained from the load bus data.
38 Chapter 2

18 kV 230 kV
1---_ loa d C 13 .8 kV
jO. 0625
0 .0085 • ' 0. 072 0 .0 119 . jo. 1008
P/2 = jO.0745 B/2 = jO.l045

CD :0 ~
a
::: CD
a s, a
~
:< + s,
N
" lI; "
S
M
a
a
a
a S
CD G)

.
~
0

s
N
a
~
a ~
e..
0
loa d A 0
!:!.. .;- Load B
a "
s
"
0 r-,
0
S 230k V a
4
0()
t;
0
s,
~
16.5 kV

Fig. 2.18 Nine-bus system impeda nce diagram: all impeda nces are in pu on a IOO-MVA base.

100.0
Load C
(35. 0)
18 kV 230 kV no W
-1 63 76 . 4 85.0
163. 0 - 75.9 -2 4 . 1 24 . 2 - 85.0
(6,7 ) (9 .2 ) (- 0 . 8) (- 10 ,7 ) (- 24 . 3) (3. 0) (15.0) \ ( - 10 .9 )

86. 6 ® 60 .8
(- 10 . 9)0)

1.0 1 ~ 1. 025
(- 8 .4) (- 18P)
&L. / 4 ,7 0
CD CD
1.032
1. 026
~
r; M :i as:
- '"
"" M
~I ::;:.
0
~
~0 o. 996 I 1 . 013
0 0 r-,
r::: / - 4. 0 0 ~ ~ ~ / -3,70
'"
N
~ ...
a
I
cc
M
'"
'" 0()
0 0
o- !2
0
~ M
I 2-
Lood A Lood B

230 kv

Fig. 2.19 Nine-bus system load-flow diagram showing prefault condit ions; all flows are in MWand MVAR .
 The Elementary Mathematical Model 39

Table 2.1. Generator Data

Generator 2 3
Rated MVA 247.5 192.0 128.0
kV 16.5 18.0 13.8
Power factor 1.0 0.85 0.85
Type hydro steam steam
Speed 180 r/min 3600 r/min 3600 r/min
xd 0.1460 0.8958 1.3125
xd 0.0608 0.1198 0.1813
xq 0.0969 0.8645 1.2578
x'q 0.0969 0.1969 0.25
x-t(leakage) 0.0336 0.0521 0.0742
TdO 8.96 6.00 5.89
T~O 0 0.535 0.600
Stored energy
at rated speed 2364 MW·s 640 MW·s 301 MW·s
Note: Reactance values are in pu on a loo-MVA base. All time constants are in s. (Several quantities
are tabulated that are as yet undefined in this book. These quantities are derived and justified in Chapter 4
but are given here to provide complete data for the sample system.)

2. System data as follows:

a. The inertia constant H and direct axis transient reactance Xd for all generators.
b. Transmission network impedances for the initial network conditions and the sub-
sequent switchings such as fault clearing and breaker reclosings.
3. The type and location of disturbance, time of switchings, and the maximum time for
which a solution is to be obtained.

2.10.2 Preliminary calculations

To prepare the system data for a stability study, the following preliminary calcula-
tions are made:
1. All system data are converted to a common base: a system base of 100 MV A is
frequently used.
2. The loads are converted to equivalent impedances or admittances. The needed data
for this step are obtained from the load-flow study. Thus if a certain load bus has a
voltage VL, power PL, reactive power QL' and current ~ flowing into a load ad-
mittance YL = GL + jB L, then
PL + jQL = rLI! = VL[V"i(G L - jB L ) ] = Vt(G L - jB L )
The equivalent shunt admittance at that bus is given by
(2.60)
3. The internal voltages of the generators E;& are calculated from the load-flow data.
These internal angles may be computed from the pretransient terminal voltages V I.!!..
as follows. Let the terminal voltage be used temporarily as a reference, as shown in
Figure 2.20. Ifwe define 1 = I, + j/2' then from the relation P + jQ = ill* we have
I, + j/2 = (P - jQ)/V. But since EIJ..' = V + jx~J: we compute
EIJ..' = (V + Qx~/V) + j(PXd/V) (2.61)
The initial generator angle 00 is then obtained by adding the pretransient voltage
40 Chapter 2

+
ElL

Fig.2.20 Generator representation for computing 00.

angle a to 0', or
00 = 0' + ex (2.62)
4. The Y matrix for each network condition is calculated. The following steps are
usually needed:
a. The equivalent load impedances (or admittances) are connected between the load
buses and the reference node; additional nodes are provided for the internal gen-
erator voltages (nodes I, 2, ... , n in Figure 2.17) and the appropriate values of
»; are connected between these nodes and the generator terminal nodes. Also,
simulation of the fault impedance is added as required, and the admittance matrix
is determined for each switching condition.
b. All impedance elements are converted to admittances.
c. Elements of the Y matrix are identified as follows: ~i is the sum of all the ad-
mittances connected to node i, and ¥;j is the negative of the. admittance between
node i and nodej.
5. Finally, we eliminate all the nodes except for the internal generator nodes and ob-
tain the V matrix for the reduced network. The reduction can be achieved by matrix
operation if we recall that all the nodes have zero injection currents except for the in-
ternal generator nodes. This property is used to obtain the network reduction as
shown below.
Let
YV (2.63)
where

I = [-:~]
Now the matrices Y and V are partitioned accordingly to get

(2.64)

where the subscript n is used to denote generator nodes and the subscript r is used for
the remaining nodes. Thus for the network in Figure 2.17, Vn has the dimension (n x I)
and V, has the dimension (r x I).
Expanding (2.64),
 The Elementary Mathematical Model 41

from which we eliminate Y, to find

In = (Ynn - Ynr Y;;. 1 Ym ) Vn (2.65)
The matrix (Y nn - Y nr Y;,:' Y rn ) is the desired reduced matrix Y. It has the dimensions
(n x n) where n is the number of the generators.
The network reduction illustrated by (2.63)-(2.65) is a convenient analytical tech-
nique that can be used only when the loads are treated as constant impedances. If the
loads are not considered to be constant impedances, the identity of the load buses must
be retained. Network reduction can be applied only to those nodes that have zero in-
jection current.

Example 2.6
The technique of solving a classical transient stability problem is illustrated by con-
ducting a study of the nine-bus system, the data for which is given in Figures 2.18 and
2.19 and Table 2.1. The disturbance initiating the transient is a three-phase fault
occurring near bus 7 at the end of line 5-7. The fault is cleared in five cycles (0.083 s) by
opening line 5-7.
For the purpose of this study the generators are to be represented by the classical
model and the loads by constant impedances. The damping torques are neglected. The
system base is 100 MVA.
Make all the preliminary calculations needed for a transient stability study so that
all coefficients in (2.56) are known.
Solution
The objective of the study is to obtain time solutions for the rotor angles of the gen-
erators after the transient is introduced. These time solutions are called "swing curves."
In the classical model the angles of the generator internal voltages behind transient
reactances are assumed to correspond to the rotor angles. Therefore, mathematically,
we are to obtain a solution for the set of equations (2.56). The initial conditions, de-
noted by adding the subscript 0, are given by w;o = 0 and 0;0 obtained from (2.57).
Preliminary calculations (following the steps outlined in Section 2.10.2) are:
l. The system base is chosen to be 100 MVA. All impedance data are given to this base.
2. The equivalent shunt admittances for the loads are given in pu as
load A: YL5 = 1.2610 - jO.5044
load B: YL6 = 0.8777 - jO.2926
load C: YL8 = 0.9690 - jO.3391
3. The generator internal voltages and their initial angles are given in pu by
E,~ = 1.0566/2.2717°
E2 & = 1.0502/19.7315°
E3~ = 1.0170/13.1752°
4. The Y matrix is obtained as outlined in Section 2.10.2, step 4. For convenience bus
numbers I, 2, and 3 are used to denote the generator internal buses rather than the
generator low-voltage terminal buses. Values for the generator Xd are added to the
reactance of the generator transformers. For example, for generator 2 bus 2 will be
the internal bus for the voltage behind transient reactance; the reactance between
42 Chapter 2

Table 2.2. Prefault Network

Impedance Admittance
Bus no.
R X G B

Generators"
No.1 1-4 0 0.1184 0 -8.4459
No.2 2-7 0 0.1823 0 -5.4855
No.3 3-9 0 0.2399 0 -4.1684
Transmission lines
4-5 0.0100 0.0850 1.3652 -11.6041
4-6 0.0170 0.0920 1.9422 -10.5107
5-7 0.0320 0.1610 1.1876 -5.9751
6-9 0.0390 0.1700 1.2820 - 5.5882
7-8 0.0085 0.0720 1.6171 -13.6980
8-9 0.0119 0.1008 1.1551 -9.7843
Shunt admittancest
Load A 5-0 1.2610 -0.2634
Load B 6-0 0.8777 -0.0346
Load C 8-0 0.9690 -0.1601
4-0 0.1670
7-0 0.2275
9-0 0.2835
*For each generator the transformer reactance is added to the generator xd.
tThe line shunt susceptances are added to the loads.

bus 2 and bus 7 is the sum of the generator and transformer reactances (0.1198 +
0.0625). The prefault network admittances including the load equivalents are given
in Table 2.2, and the corresponding Y matrix is given in Table 2.3. The y' matrix for
the faulted network and for the network with the fault cleared are similarly obtained.
The results are shown in Tables 2.4 and 2.5 respectively.
5. Elimination of the network nodes other than the generator internal nodes by net-
work reduction as outlined in step 5 is done by digital computer. The resulting re-
duced Y matrices are shown in Table 2.6 for the prefault network, the faulted net-
work, and the network with the fault cleared respectively.
We now have the values of the constant voltages behind transient reactances for
all three generators and the reduced Y matrix for each network. Thus all coefficients
of (2.56) are available.

Example 2.7
For the system and the transient of Example 2.6 calculate the rotor angles versus
time. The fault is cleared in five cycles by opening line 5-7 of Figure 2.18. Plot the
angles <5 t , <5 2 , and <5 3 and their difference versus time.
Solution
The problem is to solve the set of equations (2.56) for n = 3 and D = O. All the
coefficients for the faulted network and the network with the fault cleared have been
determined in Example 2.6. Since the set (2.56) is nonlinear, the desired time solutions
for <5 1, <5 2, and <5) are obtained by numerical integration. A brief survey of numerical
integration of differential equations is given in Appendix B. (For hand calculations
see [I] for an excellent discussion of a numerical integration method of the swing equa-
 Table 2.3. Y Matrix of Prefault Network
Node I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

I -j8.4459 j8.4459
2 - j5.4855 j5.4855
3 - j4.1684 j4.1684
4 j8.4459 3.3074 - j30.3937 - 1.3652 + j 11.6041 - 1.9422 + j 10.5107
5 - 1.3652 + j 11.6041 3.8138 - j 17.8426 - 1.1876 + j5.9751
6 - 1.9422 + j 10.5107 4.1019 - j16.1335 - 1.2820 + j5.5882
7 j5.4855 - 1.1876 + j5.9751 2.8047 - j24.93 11 - 1.6171 + j 13.6980
8 -1.6171 + j13.6980 3.7412 - j23.6424 -1.1551 +j9.7843
9 j4.1684 - 1.2820 + j5 .5882 - 1.1551 + j9.7843 2.4371 - j19.2574

Table 2.4. Y Matrix of Faulted Network

Node I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

I - j8.4459 j8.4459
2 - j5.4855
3 - j4.1684 j4.1684
4 j8.4459 3.3074 - j30.3937 - 1.3652 + j 11.6041 -1.9422 + j10.5107
5 - 1.3652 + j 11.6041 3.8138 - j17.8426
6 -1.9422 + j 10.5107 4.1019 - j16.1335 - 1.2820 + j5.5882
7
8 3.7412 - j23.6424 -1.1551 +j9.7843
9 -j4.1684 - 1.2820 + j5.5882 - 1.1551 + j9.7843 2.4371 - j19.2574

Table 2.5. Y Matrix of Network with Fault Cleared

Node I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

I -j8.4459 j8.4459
2 -j5.4855 j5.4855
3 -j4.1684 j4.1684
4 j8.4459 3.3074 - j30.3937 - 1.3652 + j 11.6041 -1.9422 + j 10.5107
5 - 1.3652 + j 11.6041 2.6262 - j 11.8675
6 -1.9422 + j 10.5107 4.1019 - j16.1335 - I .2820 + j5 .5882
7 j5.4855 J.6171 - j 18.9559 -1.6171 + j13.6980
8 -1.6171 + j13.6980 3.7412 - j23.6424 - l.1551 + j9.7843
9 j4.1684 - 1.2820 + j5.5882 - I. I551 + j9. 7843 2.4371 - j 19.2574
44 Chapter 2

Table 2.6. Reduced Y Matrices

Type or Node 2 3
network
Prefault I 0.846 - j2 .988 0.287 + j 1.513 0.210 + j 1.226
2 0.287 + j 1.513 0.420 - j2.724 0.213 + j 1.088
3 0.210 +j1.226 0 .213 + j 1.088 0 .277 - j2.368
Faulted I 0 .657 - j3 .816 0.000 + jO.OOO 0.070 + jO.631
2 0.000 + jO.OOO 0 .000 - j5.486 0.000 + jO.OOO
3 0.070 + jO.631 0.000 + jO.OOO 0.174 - j2 .796
Fault cleared 1 1.181 - j2 .229 0 .138 +jO .726 0.191 + j 1.079
2 0.138 +jO .726 0.389 - j 1.953 0.199 + jl.229
3 0.191 + j 1.079 0.199 + j l.2 29 0.273 - j2 .342

tion. Also see Chapter 10 of [81 for a more detailed discussion of several nume rical
schemes for solving the swing equation.) The so-called transient stabil ity digital com-
puter programs available at many computer centers include subroutines for solving non-
linear differential equations . Discussion of these programs is beyond the scope of th is
book .
Numerical integration of the swing equations for the three-generator. nine-bus sys-
tem is made by digital computer for 2.0 s of simulated real time. Figure 2.21 shows the
rotor angles of the three machine s. A plot of 021 = 02 - 0, and 0JI = oJ - 0. is shown

400

v>-
~

u
360
'" /.
.!:
/ j
I '
'0
~

320 Z
v
-s
III
280 .f
I
6.1/
/I~J
I
I
I
240
I
I II
Ii I
I 1/
.s
~ 200
I ;/
II
I
00' - I
I

--
16
1
I
I
I
I 6.
120 I
I / .-/
I
I
/ /;,/ '
80
I / / 63
I / '

40 :/ /
)/ I

I I
0 0 .5 1. 5 2.0
Time, s

Fig, 2.2\ Plot or 01.02. and OJ versustime.

 The Elementary Mathematical Model 45

('
I \
I \
I \
I \
I \
I \
/ \
V ~
o 20 40

o 0.5 1. 5 2.0
Time.,. s

Fig. 2.22 Plot of 0 differences versus time .

in Figure 2.22 where we can see that the system is stable. The maximum angle difference
is about 85° . This is the value of 021 at t = 0.43 s. Note that the solution is carried
out for two "swings" to show that the second swing is not greater than the first for
either 021 or 0JI ' To determine whether the system is stable or unstable for the par-
ticular transient under study, it is sufficient to carry out the time solution for one
swing only. If the rotor angles (or the angle differences) reach maximum values and
then decrease, the system is stable. If any of the angle differences increase indefinitely,
the system is unstable because at least one machine will lose synchronism.

2.11 Shortcomings of the Classical Model

System stability depends on the characteristics of all the components of the power
system . This includes the response characteristics of the control equipment on the
turbogenerators, on the dynamic characteristics of the loads, on the supplementary
control equipment installed , and on the type and settings of protective equipment used.
The machine dynamic response to any impact in the system is oscillatory . In the
past the sizes of the power systems involved were such that the period of these oscilla-
tions was not much greater than one second . Furthermore, the equipment used for
excitation controls was relatively slow and simple. Thus the classical model was
adequate.
Today large system interconnections with the greater system inertias and relatively
weaker ties result in longer periods of oscillations during transients. Generator control
systems, particularly modern excitation systems, are extremely fast. It is therefore