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Lecture 4

A field is a set of elements where addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are defined and satisfy certain properties. Elements in a field form groups under addition and multiplication. Finite fields, also called Galois fields, GF(p), are constructed using modulo arithmetic over a prime number of elements. Polynomials over a finite field obey similar algebraic properties and can be used to define finite field extensions.

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20 views23 pages

Lecture 4

A field is a set of elements where addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are defined and satisfy certain properties. Elements in a field form groups under addition and multiplication. Finite fields, also called Galois fields, GF(p), are constructed using modulo arithmetic over a prime number of elements. Polynomials over a finite field obey similar algebraic properties and can be used to define finite field extensions.

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elmzyonasara
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Fields

z A field is a set of elements on which we


can perform addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division without
leaving the set.
Formal Definition of a Field
z Let F be a set of elements on which two binary
operations called addition ‘+’ and multiplication ‘×’ are
defined. The set is a field under these two operations if
the following conditions are satisfied:
1. F is a commutative group under addition. The identity
element with respect to addition is called the zero element
of F and is denoted by 0.
2. The nonzero elements of F {{F}-0} form a commutative
group under multiplication. The multiplicative identity is
termed the unity element in F and is denoted by 1.
3. Multiplication is distributive over addition. In other words,
for a, b, c in F, a×(b+c) = a×b + a×c.
Some Notation
z For a in F, -a is the additive inverse of a.
• Example: in GF(3) if a =1, -a = 2.
z For a in F, 1/a is the multiplicative
inverse of a.
• Example: in GF(3) if a = 2, 1/a = 2.
z This will become evident as we progress
through the lecture.
Properties of Fields
1. For every element a in F, a×0 = 0×a = 0.
2. For every two non-zero elements a, b in F,
a×b ≠ 0.
3. For a, b in F, a×b = 0 for a≠ 0 implies b = 0.
4. For any two elements in a field -(a × b) = (-a)
× b = a × (-b).
5. For a ≠ 0, a × b = a × c implies that b = c.
Galois Field 2 (GF(2)): The
Binary Field
z A binary field can be constructed under
modulo-2 addition and modulo-2
multiplication.
+ 0 1 × 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1

Modulo-2 Addition Modulo-2 Multiplication


GF(p)
z Using the same idea as GF(2), we can
generate any Galois field with a prime
number, p, of elements over modulo-p
addition and multiplication.
Example GF(3)

+ 0 1 2 × 0 1 2
0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 0 1 0 1 2
2 2 0 1 2 0 2 1

Modulo-3 Addition Modulo-3 Multiplication


Extension Fields GF(pm)
z We cannot construct finite fields simply by
using modulo arithmetic.
z For example, GF(4) is not 0,1,2,3 using
modulo-4 addition and multiplication.
z GF(4) can be constructed by considering it as
2 dimensional GF(2).
z GF(4)={(0,0), (0,1), (1,0), (1,1)}.
z We say that GF(4) is an extension field of
GF(2).
Characteristic of a Field
z Consider a finite field of q elements, GF(q).
k
z Let t k = ∑1 .
i =1
z Let λ be the smallest value of k for which tk =
0.
z Then λ is called the characteristic of the field
GF(q).
z For example, in GF(2), λ = 2 (since 1+1 = 0).
In GF(3), 1+1+1 = 0, thus λ = 3.
Theorem 5

z The characteristic of a field is always a


prime number.
Order of an element in GF(q)
z Suppose α is a nonzero element in GF(q).
z Since the non-zero elements in a field form a
closed set under multiplication, then α2, α3,
α4 … are also elements in GF(q).
z The order of element α in GF(q) is the
smallest integer, ord(α), for which αord(α) = 1.
Example GF(3)
z GF(3)={0,1,2}
z 1: 11 = 1, therefore ord(1) = 1.
z 2: 21 = 2, 22 = 4mod3=1, therefore ord(2)
= 2.
Theorem 6
z Let α be a non-zero element in GF(q).
Then αq-1 = 1.
Theorem 7
z Let α be an element in GF(q). Then
ord(α) divides q-1. (ord(α)|q-1)
Primitive Elements
z Any element in GF(q) whose order is q-1 is a
primitive element of GF(q).
• For example, in GF(3), element 2 has order 2. Thus 2
is a primitive element of GF(3).
z Let α be a primitive element in GF(q), then the
series α1, α2, …, αq-1 produces q-1 distinct
non-zero elements in GF(q).
z In other words, the q-1 successive powers of
a primitive element α produce all of the
non-zero elements in GF(q). Thus GF(q) =
{0, α, α2, …, αq-1}.
Example GF(4)
z 0 = (0,0), 1 = (0,1), α = (1,0) and α2 = (1,1).
z In other words, α2 = α+1 (*).
z If α is the primitive, then ord(α) = 3.
z α3 = α2α = (α+1)α = α2+α = α+1+α =
(1,0)+(0,1)+(1,0) = (1+0+1,0+1+0) = (0,1).
z Primitive element is defined by (*).
z How do we define the primitive of a field?
z Special type of polynomial: primitive
polynomial.
Polynomials over GF(q)
z The polynomial f(X) = f0 + f1X + f2X2 + …
+fnXn is a polynomial of degree n over
GF(q) if the coefficients fi come from
GF(q) and obey GF(q) arithmetic.
z Suppose f(X) and g(X) are two
polynomials over GF(q) and are given by
(assume m<n):
f ( X ) = f o + f1 X + ... + f n X
n

g ( X ) = g o + g1 X + ... + g m X m
Addition of polynomials

f ( X ) + g ( X ) = ( f o + g o ) + ( f1 + g1 ) X + ... + ( f m + g m ) X m
+ f m +1 X m +1 + ... + f n X n

Where all additions are performed as


defined in GF(q)
Multiplication of polynomials
z f(X)g(X) = c0 + c1X + … cn+mXn+m

c0 = f0 g0
c1 = f 0 g1 + f1 g 0
c2 = f 0 g 2 + f1 g1 + f 2 g 0
M M M
cn+ m = fn gm
Examples
z Polynomials in GF(2)
f (X ) = 1+ X + X 3
g( X ) = 1 + X 2
z f(X)+g(X) = (1+1) + (1+0)X + (0+1)X2 +
(1+0)X3 = X + X2 + X3
z f(X)g(X) = (1+X+X3) × (1+X2) = 1 + X2 +
X + X3 + X3 +X5 = 1 + X + X2 + (1 + 1)X3
+ X5 = 1 + X + X2 + X5.
Examples
z Polynomials in GF(4)
f ( X ) = 1 + αX + αX 2
g( X ) = 1 + α 2 X
Properties of Polynomials over
GF(q)
Commutative
a(X) + b(X) = b(X) + a(X)
a(X)b(X) = b(X)a(X)
Associative
a(X) + [b(X) + c(X)] = [a(X) + b(X)] + c(X)
a(X)[b(X)c(X)] = [a(X)b(X)]c(X)
Distributive
a(X)[b(X) + c(X)] = a(X)b(X) + a(X)c(X)
Polynomial Division
z When we divide f(X) by g(X), we get two
new polynomials; q(X) is the quotient
and r(X) is the remainder.
z The degree of the remainder, r(X) is
smaller than the degree of g(X).
X2 +1
X 3 +1 X 5 + +X2 +1
X5 + X3
X3 + X2 +1
X3 + +1
X2

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