energies

Review
A Review of Hydrogen as a Fuel in Internal
Combustion Engines
Behdad Shadidi 1, * , Gholamhassan Najafi 2 and Talal Yusaf 3

1 Biosystem Engineering, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan 6517838695, Iran

2 Department of Biosystem Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modares University,
Tehran 1497713111, Iran; [email protected]
3 School of Engineering and Technology, Central Queensland University, Queensland, QLD 4009, Australia;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +98-8138381601

Abstract: The demand for fossil fuels is increasing because of globalization and rising energy demands.
As a result, many nations are exploring alternative energy sources, and hydrogen is an efficient and
practical alternative fuel. In the transportation industry, the development of hydrogen-powered cars
aims to maximize fuel efficiency and significantly reduce exhaust gas emission and concentration. The
impact of using hydrogen as a supplementary fuel for spark ignition (SI) and compression ignition (CI)
engines on engine performance and gas emissions was investigated in this study. By adding hydrogen
as a fuel in internal combustion engines, the torque, power, and brake thermal efficiency of the engines
decrease, while their brake-specific fuel consumption increase. This study suggests that using hydrogen
will reduce the emissions of CO, UHC, CO2 , and soot; however, NOx emission is expected to increase.
Due to the reduction of environmental pollutants for most engines and the related environmental
benefits, hydrogen fuel is a clean and sustainable energy source, and its use should be expanded.





 Keywords: hydrogen fuel; renewable energy
Citation: Shadidi, B.; Najafi, G.;
Yusaf, T. A Review of Hydrogen as a
Fuel in Internal Combustion Engines.
Energies 2021, 14, 6209. https:// 1. Introduction
doi.org/10.3390/en14196209
The rise in the world population and the excessive use of fossil fuels have resulted
in a significant increase in the global demand for energy production in the twenty-first
Academic Editor: Adam Revesz
century [1]. Total global oil consumption was 3928 million tons in 2008 and is expected
to reach 5300 million tons by 2021 [2,3]. However, oil is a finite resource that is becoming
Received: 27 August 2021
increasingly scarce and expensive [4]. Because of their availability, fossil fuels now meet
Accepted: 26 September 2021
around 65% of the world’s energy demand [5]. Transportation vehicles and machinery
Published: 29 September 2021
that require fossil fuels to operate use a significant proportion of this energy. In 2018,
1.42 billion automobiles and light trucks were on the road globally [6]. By 2050, the number
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
of automobiles is anticipated to exceed 2 billion [7].
published maps and institutional affil-
The decline in fossil fuels availability has led to an energy (fuel) crisis. IC engines, on
iations.
the other hand, will continue to dominate the transportation and power industries due to
their flexibility. Pollutants emitted by internal combustion engines affect the atmospheric
conditions and cause serious problems such as global warming, air pollution, acidic rains,
and respiratory problems [8]. So far, many researchers have tried to create a suitable
combustion system for the complete combustion of hydrocarbons [9,10]. However, the
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
issue is still challenging. Increasing fuel quality and creating better fuel combustion in
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
engines are among the methods that have been considered to solve this problem. In these
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
methods, there is no need to make changes in the engine structure. The use of biofuels,
conditions of the Creative Commons
water, nanoparticles, and other additives is among the solutions that have been studied
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// to increase combustion and fuel quality [8]. To ensure the long-term safety and viability
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ of IC engines, “clean-burning” fuels derived from renewable sources must be developed
4.0/). as soon as feasible [11]. In this respect, research and investments in the use of renewable

Energies 2021, 14, 6209. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196209 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2021, 14, 6209 2 of 20

and sustainable alternative fuels, as well as improvement of engine energy efficiency, have
been made [12–15].
One of the most promising possibilities for meeting future energy demands is hy-
drogen [16]. Hydrogen is environmentally friendly when it is produced from renewable
sources in a sustainable and efficient process [17]. In comparison to hydrocarbon fuels such
as natural gas, gasoline, and diesel, utilizing hydrogen as a fuel in internal combustion
engines can improve thermal efficiency while decreasing carbon emissions. A key benefit
of using hydrogen for transportation is that it increases our reliance on renewable sources
while reducing our usage of non-renewable fossil fuels [18].
Hydrogen has remarkable qualities as a carbon-free fuel. Hydrogen has three times
the heating value of petroleum in internal combustion engines and fuel cells and produces
considerably fewer hazardous tailpipe emissions, which is one of the major disadvantages
of fossil fuels [19]. One of the major advantages of hydrogen is that it is an environmentally
friendly fuel since when utilized in a fuel cell, it produces solely H2 O [20]. Hydrogen
has a heating value 4, 2.8, and 2.4 times higher than those of coal, gasoline, and methane,
respectively [21]. When compared to fossil fuels, hydrogen, the most abundant element,
has the highest specific energy content [22].
Compression ignition (CI) diesel engines are widely used in heavy transport, power
generation, and agricultural applications. Some of their benefits include increased torque,
increased power, increased thermal efficiency, and lower fuel consumption [23,24]. Un-
fortunately, diesel engines create more nitrogen oxides (NOx ), unburned hydrocarbons
(UHC), carbon monoxide (CO), and soot [25]. Despite the fact that heavy-duty engines
emit pollutants into the environment, they are unlikely to be phased out anytime soon,
as alternatives such as large-scale fuel cell manufacturing remain difficult and expen-
sive [26]. Hydrogen fuel in CI engines can minimize CO2 emissions while preserving or
even enhancing engine performance [27,28].
Because of its unique properties, hydrogen is more suited for use in spark ignition (SI)
engines than in compression combustion (CI) engines [29,30]. The adiabatic flame rate of
hydrogen, for example, is much higher than that of gasoline, which enhances the combus-
tion stability [30,31]. Furthermore, hydrogen has a significantly greater diffusion coefficient
than gasoline, resulting in a more homogeneous combination of air and fuel. When added,
hydrogen’s broad flammability makes it easier to run engines in lean circumstances [32].
In addition, because hydrogen has a higher combustion temperature (about 858 K [33]), it
is better suited to SI engines than to compression combustion (CI) engines [34–36].
Several studies on the use of hydrogen in spark ignition engines have been done [37,38]
that confront problems such as low volumetric efficiency and decreased power density.
Table 1 [39] compares the characteristics of hydrogen, gasoline, and diesel.

Table 1. Hydrogen, gasoline, and diesel have different characteristics.

Properties Hydrogen Gasoline Diesel

Carbohydrate content (mass percent) 0 84 86
Molecular mass 2.015 110 170
A/F stoichiometric ratio 34.3 14.6 17
Temperature of ignition (K) 858 530 -
Temperature of adiabatic flame (K) 2384 2270 2300
293 K (cm/s) flame speed 237 41.5 -
Flammability limits (vol percent in air) 4.1–75 1.5–7.6 0.6–5.5
Quenching the gap (cm) 0.06 0.2 -
Lower heating value per kilogram (MJ/kg) 120 44 -
Diffusion coefficient (cm2 /s) under stoichiometric conditions 0.61 0.05 -

To employ pure hydrogen in engines, major engine modifications are necessary. In-
stead, hydrogen may be utilized as an auxiliary fuel in automobiles to minimize fuel
consumption and emissions, as a middle solution [40,41].
Energies 2021, 14, 6209 3 of 20

Given the importance of hydrogen fuels as renewable and clean fuels in internal
combustion engines, it is important to examine their influence on spark and compression
ignition engines. The goal of this research is to look at how hydrogen fuels affect the
performance and emissions of spark and compression ignition engines.

2. Production Methods of Hydrogen

Hydrogen has become one of the most useful alternatives to fossil fuels today due
to its properties such as great range of flammability, minor quenching distance, minimal
ignition source energy, great diffusivity, and low density [42]. Since hydrogen is one of the
many elements in the environment, it is easily available [43].
Hydrogen is not available in its pure form in nature (atmosphere). However, it can
be produced from hydrogen-containing compounds such as fossil fuels, hydrogen sulfide,
biomass, and water. To acquire hydrogen, it must first be separated from the other elements
in the combination [42].
The following are ways for producing hydrogen. Due to their lower cost (less than
2 $/kg H2 ) compared to other methods, steam methane reforming and coal gasification are
the current industrially established processes for hydrogen production [17].

2.1. Steam Methane Reforming

Over 90% of the world’s hydrogen is produced using the steam methane reforming
process [44]. Under a 3–25 bar pressure (1 bar = 14.5 psi) in the presence of a catalyst,
methane combines with steam to form hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a trace amount
of carbon dioxide. Methane steam reforming is an endothermic reaction, which means it
requires heat to complete the process [45]. Most of the hydrogen generated in the world
today is derived from natural gas.
The process of steam–methane reforming for hydrogen production is similar to that
of producing other fuels like ethanol, propane, or even gasoline. The first stage is to
generate carbon monoxide and steam, which are then combined with a catalyst to produce
more hydrogen. In a final production stage known as “pressure swing adsorption”, car-
bon dioxide and other impurities are removed from the gas stream, leaving essentially
pure hydrogen [45].
Reaction of steam–methane reforming [45]:

Heat + H2 O + CH4 + → CO + 3H2 (1)

Reaction between water and gas [45]:

H2 O + CO → Heat (few amount) + H2 + CO2 (2)

2.2. Electrolysis
Electrolysis is a viable method for generating carbon-free hydrogen from renewable
and nuclear energy. The process of splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using
electricity is known as hydrogen generation. An electrolyte separates to the anode and the
cathode in an electrolyzer. Because of the varied types of electrolyte material and ionic
species they conducts, different electrolyzers work in different ways [46].
Recently, research has been done on hydrogen wind systems based on the electrolysis
of water with wind energy to generate the electricity required by this method using a renew-
able wind source. In this regard, sources including wind energy are used as a renewable
energy option. Using this technology, renewable energy-based electricity can be converted
to hydrogen, a carbon-free energy carrier that does not emit greenhouse gas [47,48].

2.3. Coal Gasification

Coal is made up of two parts: carbon-based matter (the decomposed remnants of
prehistoric plants) and mineral stuff (which comes from the ground from which the coal
 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

2.3. Coal Gasification

Energies 2021, 14, 6209 4 of 20
Coal is made up of two parts: carbon-based matter (the decomposed remnants of
prehistoric plants) and mineral stuff (which comes from the ground from which the coal
isisdug).
dug).Carbon-based
Carbon-basedmatter matterisismade
madeup upofoffivefiveprimary
primarycomponents:
components:carbon,
carbon,hydrogen,
hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and
oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur [49]. sulfur [49].
Tocomprehend
To comprehend gasification,
gasification, wewe must
must firstfirst comprehend
comprehend combustion.
combustion. TheThe full oxida-
full oxidation
tion of a fuel such as coal, which generates heat and carbon
of a fuel such as coal, which generates heat and carbon dioxide, is known as combustion.dioxide, is known as combus-
tion. Carbon
Carbon dioxidedioxide is a non-combustible
is a non-combustible end product
end product of the burning
of the burning process because
process because it cannotit
becannot
furtherbe oxidized.
further oxidized.
However, However,
coal iscoalnot is not oxidized
fully fully oxidized
duringduring gasification.
gasification. CoalCoal
is
is instead
instead treated
treated withwith a substance
a substance knownknownas aas a gasification
gasification agent.
agent. Gasification
Gasification is endother-
is endothermic,
mic, meaning
meaning it produces
it produces no heat.noInheat. In it
reality, reality,
requires it requires
heat inputheat input to
in order inproceed.
order to Because
proceed.
Because the resultant gas is not completely oxidized,
the resultant gas is not completely oxidized, it can be burnt as a fuel. it can be burnt as a fuel.
Themethod
The methodofofproducing
producinghydrogen
hydrogenfrom fromcoal coalbegins
beginswith
withpartial
partialoxidation,
oxidation,whichwhich
involves
involvesaddingaddingsome someair airtotothe
thecoal,
coal,which
whichproduces
producescarbon
carbondioxide
dioxidethrough
throughtraditional
traditional
burning.
burning.However,
However,not notenough
enough heat
heatis is
provided
provided to totally burn
to totally thethe
burn coal—simply
coal—simply enough to
enough
heat the the
to heat gasification
gasificationreaction. TheThe
reaction. partial oxidation
partial oxidationprocess alsoalso
process produces
produces carbon
carbondioxide,
diox-
which is used
ide, which is as
useda gasifier. Carbon
as a gasifier. monoxide
Carbon is formed
monoxide when when
is formed carboncarbon
dioxide interacts
dioxide with
interacts
the remainder of the carbon in coal (this is an endothermic
with the remainder of the carbon in coal (this is an endothermic gasification reaction,gasification reaction, which
needs
whichheatneeds input).
heatThere
input).is no hydrogen
There yet. Carbon
is no hydrogen monoxide
yet. Carbon in the gas stream
monoxide in thenowgas reacts
stream
with
nowsteam
reactsto produce
with steamhydrogen
to produce and carbon dioxide;
hydrogen and carbon therefore,
dioxide; wetherefore,
are now we producing
are now
hydrogen
producing (Figure
hydrogen 1). (Figure 1).

Figure1.1.Coal-based
Figure Coal-basedhydrogen
hydrogenproduction
production[49].
[49].

2.4.
2.4.Biomass
BiomassGasification
Gasification
Gasification
Gasificationisisaaprocess
processthatthattransforms
transformsorganic
organicororfossil-based
fossil-basedcarbonaceous
carbonaceousmate-
mate-
rials
rialsinto
intocarbon
carbonmonoxide,
monoxide,hydrogen,
hydrogen,andandcarbon
carbondioxide
dioxideatathigh
hightemperatures
temperatureswithout
without
combustion.
combustion.Biomass
Biomassdoesdoes not
notgasify as as
gasify quickly as coal
quickly because
as coal becauseit creates additional
it creates hydro-
additional hy-
carbon compounds in the gas mixture entering the gasifier, especially when
drocarbon compounds in the gas mixture entering the gasifier, especially when no oxygen no oxygen is
employed. As a result, an additional step to reform these hydrocarbons using
is employed. As a result, an additional step to reform these hydrocarbons using a catalysta catalyst to
produce a clean
to produce syngas
a clean is usually
syngas required.
is usually An example
required. An exampleof a of
simplified reaction
a simplified is [50]:
reaction is [50]:

H2 O H O2 ++O
+ 2O C26+C
H126H →6 →
O126 O H2H+2 +CO
CO
2 2++CO
CO ++ other
other species
species (3)
(3)
Notethat
Note thatglucose
glucoseisisused
usedasasaacellulose
cellulosesubstitute
substituteininthe
theaforementioned
aforementionedprocess.
process.TheThe
content and complexity of the actual biomass varies greatly, with cellulose being one of theof
content and complexity of the actual biomass varies greatly, with cellulose being one
the most
most important
important components
components [51]. [51].
Supercritical water gasification is aispromising
Supercritical water gasification a promising hydrothermal
hydrothermal technology
technology for trans-
for transform-
forming
ing waste waste biomass
biomass to hydrogen-rich
to hydrogen-rich syngassyngas (gaseous,
(gaseous, liquid,liquid, and bio-products)
and solid solid bio-products)
and
and bio-oil at high temperatures and elevated pressures [52]. Water
bio-oil at high temperatures and elevated pressures [52]. Water in this process in this process exists
exists in its
supercritical condition (T > 374 ◦ C, p > 22.1 MPa). Supercritical water conditions near the
critical point are mostly recommended; water can easily hydrolyze natural polymers of
biomass such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [53].
 in its supercritical condition (T > 374 °C, p > 22.1 MPa). Supercritical water conditions near
the critical point are mostly recommended; water can easily hydrolyze natural polymers
Energies 2021, 14, 6209 5 of 20
of biomass such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [53].

2.5.2.5.
Microbial
MicrobialBiomass
BiomassConversion
Conversion
Microbial biomass conversion
Microbial biomass conversion methods
methods makemake use ofusemicroorganisms’
of microorganisms’ capacity to con- to
capacity
sume
consume and digest biomass while also releasing hydrogen. This study might com-
and digest biomass while also releasing hydrogen. This study might lead to lead to
mercial-scale systems in the mid- to long-term, depending on
commercial-scale systems in the mid- to long-term, depending on the path taken. the path taken.
Refined
Refinedsugars, raw
sugars, rawbiomass
biomass sources
sources like maize
like maize stover,
stover,andand even wastewater
even wastewater can bebe
can
used as organic matter. These methods are frequently referred to
used as organic matter. These methods are frequently referred to as “dark fermentation” as “dark fermentation”
approaches
approaches since they
since dodo
they notnot
need
need thethe
use useof of
light [54].
light [54].
Microbes generate hydrogen directly
Microbes generate hydrogen directly in directin direct hydrogen
hydrogen fermentation.
fermentation. These
These bacteria
bacteria
cancanbreak down
break down complex
complex compounds
compounds in in
a variety
a variety of of
ways,
ways,and andenzymes
enzymes maymaycombine
combine thethe
byproducts
byproducts fromfromsome
someof of
these routes
these routes to to
create
create hydrogen
hydrogen [54].
[54].
Microbial
Microbial electrolysis cells
electrolysis (MECs)
cells (MECs) areare devices
devices that generate
that generate hydrogen
hydrogen bybycombining
combining
thetheenergy and protons supplied
energy and protons supplied by microorganisms breaking down
microorganisms breaking down organic materials organic materialswith
with a modest
a modest electric
electric current.
current. This
This technology
technology is is still
still ininitsits early
early stages,and
stages, andresearchers
researchersare
arestriving
strivingtotoimprove
improveseveral
severalelements
elementsofofit,it,including
including searching
searching forfor lower-cost
lower-cost materials
materials and
and determining
determining thethe best
best microorganisms
microorganisms to to employ
employ (Figure
(Figure 2) 2) [54].
[54].

Figure
Figure 2. Microbial
2. Microbial electrolysis
electrolysis cells
cells [54].
[54].

2.6. Thermochemical Water Spliting Cycles

2.6. Thermochemical Water Spliting Cycles
Thermochemical water splitting cycles (TWSCs) are a sequence of chemical processes
Thermochemical water splitting cycles (TWSCs) are a sequence of chemical processes
that use heat energy to generate hydrogen and oxygen from water [55]. The temperature
that use heat energy to generate hydrogen and oxygen from water◦ [55]. The temperature
necessary for direct one-step water splitting is more than 2000 C, necessitating the use
necessary for direct one-step water splitting is more than 2000 °C, necessitating the use of
of a very high temperature heat source, and existing building materials are insufficiently
a very high temperature heat source, and existing building materials are insufficiently
resistant for this operation [56]. As a result, TWSCs with two or more stages have been
resistant for this operation [56]. As a result, TWSCs with two or more stages have been
studied and developed during the last 50 years. TWSCs are being researched in several
studied and developed during the last 50 years. TWSCs are being researched in several
categories, with different technologies being developed characterized by different number
categories,
of stages with different technologies
and maximum being developed
operating temperature [57]. characterized by different num-
ber of stages and maximum operating temperature [57].
3. Methods of Using Hydrogen in Engines
3. Methods of Using Hydrogen in Engines
Hydrogen may be utilized as a fuel in internal combustion engines; however, the
Hydrogenstructure
combustion may be of utilized ascan
the fuel a fuel in internal
be altered with combustion
modest engine engines; however,
changes. the of
The usage
combustion structure of the fuel can be altered with modest engine changes.
hydrogen in an internal combustion engine is similar to that in other types of motors.The usage ofIn
hydrogen in an internal combustion engine is similar to that in other types of
different investigations on the use of hydrogen in internal combustion gasoline engines motors. In
different investigations
within the automobile on the use
industry of hydrogen
[58], in internal
hydrogen enters combustion
the combustion gasoline
chamber of engines
the motor
within the automobile
via injection industry
or carburetor [58], hydrogen
frameworks enters
from the the combustion
premixed complex.chamber of the mo-
tor via injection or carburetor frameworks from the premixed complex.
3.1. Use of Hydrogen as a Direct Fuel
Traditional engines typically run on liquid fuels like gasoline and diesel. There are a
few motors that run on alternative fuels such as natural gas. Traditional engines cannot be
utilized directly with hydrogen, unless the combustion systems are modified. To be able to
combine various forms of electricity and hydrogen, a few novel ideas must be created [59].
 be utilized directly with hydrogen, unless the combustion systems are modified. To be
able to combine various forms of electricity and hydrogen, a few novel ideas must be cre-
ated [59].

Energies 2021, 14, 6209 3.2. Use of Hydrogen as a Secondary Fuel 6 of 20

Hydrogen can be used as a main or secondary fuel in internal combustion engines.

Although
3.2. Use ofthere are certain
Hydrogen disadvantages
as a Secondary Fuel to employing hydrogen as a single fuel source,
it is more suited in the current scenario [60]. Even if this technique does not eliminate
Hydrogen can be used as a main or secondary fuel in internal combustion engines.
reliance on fossil fuels, hydrogen will be utilized in conjunction with an economic shift in
Although there are certain disadvantages to employing hydrogen as a single fuel source,
the fuel framework, and harmful exhaust emissions will be minimized [61].
it is more suited in the current scenario [60]. Even if this technique does not eliminate
reliance on fossil fuels, hydrogen will be utilized in conjunction with an economic shift in
4. Methods to Provide Hydrogen to Internal Combustion Engines
the fuel framework, and harmful exhaust emissions will be minimized [61].
The construction of hydrogen engines is similar to that of ordinary internal combus-
tion engines. to
4. Methods However,
Provide to fix several
Hydrogen to issues,
Internalsuch as low power
Combustion Enginesoutput, high NOx emis-
sions, The
and construction
irregular combustion, various changes to the fuel delivery
of hydrogen engines is similar to that of ordinary system and
internal combus-
combustion
tion system
engines. are required
However, to fix[42]. To totally
several issues, burn
such hydrogen,
as low power the output,
air/fuel high
massNO ratio must be
x emissions,
1:34, meaning 1 part hydrogen must be combined with 34 parts of air
and irregular combustion, various changes to the fuel delivery system and combustion in the cylinder. Hy-
drogen makes up around 30% of the combustion chamber under stoichiometric
system are required [42]. To totally burn hydrogen, the air/fuel mass ratio must be 1:34, circum-
stances
meaning [62].
1 part hydrogen must be combined with 34 parts of air in the cylinder. Hydrogen
As
makes up a result,
around three
30%unique fuel delivery
of the combustion techniques
chamber underwere investigated
stoichiometric in order to de-
circumstances [62].
termine Astheir potential
a result, three as fuel cells.
unique fuel delivery techniques were investigated in order to deter-
mine their potential as fuel cells.
4.1. Fuel Carburetion Technique
4.1. In
Fuel Carburetion
hydrogen Technique
engines, the use of a gas carburetor, which is one of the oldest and most
In techniques,
efficient hydrogen engines, the use of a Because
offers advantages. gas carburetor, whichisisoften
a carburetor one of the oldestinand
employed most
a gaso-
efficient
line engine,techniques, offersfuel
the hydrogen advantages. Because
gasification processa carburetor is often
may be simply employed
utilized in a gasoline
to turn widely
engine,
used the hydrogen
gasoline engine intofuelagasification process may be simply utilized to turn a widely used
hydrogen engine.
gasoline engine into a hydrogen engine.
The air–hydrogen mixture enters the intake manifold on a regular basis. A valve reg-
ulates The air–hydrogen
the quantity mixture enters
of hydrogenated thebeintake
air to manifold
combined, which onpowers
a regular thebasis.
motor.ASome
valve
regulates
engines needthethe
quantity
additionof hydrogenated
of water. Steam airand
to be combined, which
hydrogenated air arepowers the motor.
combined Some
to increase
engines
engine need the addition
performance, of water.
especially when Steam and hydrogenated
the speed is too high. air
Thisareiscombined
determinedto increase
by the
engine performance,
quantity of injected fuel.especially
Because of when the speed
the lower is too efficiency
volumetric high. Thisand is determined
system losses,bythe
the
quantity of injected fuel. Because of the lower volumetric efficiency
engine power is reduced by 15%. This method may also produce engine pre-ignition, re- and system losses,
the and
coil, engine
knockpower is the
since reduced
ratio by 15%. This
remains constantmethod mayFigure
[63,64]. also produce
3 presentsengine pre-ignition,
a schematic de-
recoil, and knock since the ratio remains
piction of the fuel carburetion process in action [65].constant [63,64]. Figure 3 presents a schematic
depiction of the fuel carburetion process in action [65].

Figure 3. Fuel carburetion technique in action [65].

4.2. Inlet
Figure Manifold
3. Fuel and Inlet
carburetion Port Injection
technique in actionTechnique
[65].
The intake port injection procedure is depicted in Figure 4. Hydrogen is delivered
to the cylinder by mechanical or electrical injectors that may operate at varying rates and
mixes with the air coming in through the intake manifold. The intake manifold plays a
crucial role. The unfavorable effects of the carburizing technique, such as premature aging,
shrinkage, and shock formation, were removed [66,67].
 mixes with the airport
The intake coming in through
injection the is
procedure intake manifold.
depicted The4.intake
in Figure manifold
Hydrogen plays a to
is delivered
crucial role. Thebyunfavorable
the cylinder mechanicaleffects of the injectors
or electrical carburizing
thattechnique, suchatasvarying
may operate premature
ratesag-
and
ing, shrinkage, and shock formation, were removed [66,67].
mixes with the air coming in through the intake manifold. The intake manifold plays a
crucial role. The unfavorable effects of the carburizing technique, such as premature ag-
Energies 2021, 14, 6209 ing, shrinkage, and shock formation, were removed [66,67]. 7 of 20

Figure 4. Inlet Manifold and Inlet Port Injection Method [67].

Figure
4.3. Inlet Manifold
4.Injection
Direct4. Systemsand Inlet Port Injection Method [67].
Figure Inlet Manifold and Inlet Port Injection Method [67].
4.3.After
DirecttheInjection
intake valve
Systems is closed, an air–fuel combination is formed in the combustion
4.3. Direct
cylinder, Injection
which is a Systems
more technically
After the intake valve is closed, sophisticated mechanism. After
an air–fuel combination compression,
is formed hydro-
in the combustion
gen is delivered
cylinder,
Afterwhich straight into technically
is a more
the intake valve theclosed,
is combustion chamber,
ansophisticated
air–fuel similar to
mechanism.
combination is what achieved
After
formed with nu-hy-
incompression,
the combustion
merous
drogen injections.
is deliveredDue to its
straight fast
intodiffusion,
the hydrogen
combustion will
chamber, rapidly
cylinder, which is a more technically sophisticated mechanism. After compression, similar combine
to what with airhydro-
achieved and
with
can be
gen utilized
numerous as a source
injections.
is delivered straight of
Due ignition
intotothe for the
its combustionspark
fast diffusion, plug [68].
hydrogen
chamber, The direct-injection
willto
similar rapidly hydrogen
combinewith
what achieved withnu-air
engine
and can
merous outperforms
be utilized
injections. the
Dueasother itstwo
atosource technologies
fastof forinthe
ignition hydrogen
diffusion, terms
spark of plug
will performance
rapidly Theand
[68].combine efficiency.
direct-injection
with air and
Furthermore,
hydrogen
can be utilized in hydrogen
engine sourcedirect-injection
as aoutperforms the other
of ignition engines,
for thetwo
spark excessive
technologies
plug auto-ignition
in
[68]. The terms temperature,
of performance
direct-injection hydrogenand
pressure
engine increase,
efficiency.outperformsand combustion
Furthermore, the in hydrogen
other twodelay may occurin[69].
direct-injection
technologies Figure
engines,
terms 5 depicts auto-ignition
excessive
of performance theand
direct injec-
tem-
efficiency.
tion mode. pressure
perature,
Furthermore, increase,direct-injection
in hydrogen and combustion delay excessive
engines, may occurauto-ignition
[69]. Figure temperature,
5 depicts the
direct injection mode.
pressure increase, and combustion delay may occur [69]. Figure 5 depicts the direct injec-
tion mode.

Figure
Figure 5. Direct
5. Direct Injection
Injection System
System [70].
[70].

5. Impact of Hydrogen Fuels on the Performance of Internal Combustion (IC) Engines

5. Figure
Impact5.of Hydrogen
Direct InjectionFuels on[70].
System the Performance of Internal Combustion (IC) Engines
The use of hydrogen in gasoline engines has been extensively researched, and various
The use of hydrogen in gasoline engines has been extensively researched, and vari-
modifications to these engines are required due to hydrogen’s properties [62]. Previous re-
ous5. modifications
Impact of Hydrogen
to theseFuels on are
engines the required
Performance of hydrogen’s
due to Internal Combustion
properties (IC)
[62].Engines
Previ-
search on hydrogen’s usage in internal combustion engines has concentrated on combining
ous research
The useon hydrogen’s
ofgasoline
hydrogen usage in
in gasoline internal
engines combustion
has been engines has concentrated
extensively researched, and on
vari-
hydrogen with or diesel fuel and evaluating the performance enhancement [71–74].
combining hydrogen with gasoline or diesel fuel and evaluating the performance
ous modifications to these engines are required due to hydrogen’s properties [62]. Previ- en-
hancement
5.1. Power
ous [71–74].
andon
research Torque
hydrogen’s usage in internal combustion engines has concentrated on
combining
Because the lowerwith
hydrogen heatgasoline
value (LHV)or diesel fuel and(120
of hydrogen evaluating
MJ/kg) isthe performance
larger than thoseen-of
hancement [71–74].
diesel (43.6 MJ/kg) and gasoline (43.4 MJ/kg) when used as an addition in spark ignition
(SI) and compression ignition (CI) engines, hydrogen reduces the volumetric efficiency of
the engine [75]. Inside the engine, hydrogen expands more than liquid fuels, thus reducing
the volumetric efficiency of hydrogen engines. This is predictable, because the intake
manifold generally heats up to help the evaporation of liquid fuels (diesel and gasoline).
According to researchers, the stoichiometric composition of hydrogen–air fuel includes
about 30% of hydrogen, and the ratio in volume of fully vaporized gasoline in gasoline
and air mixtures is 20 [76,77]. This reduction in volumetric efficiency in a diesel engine
 (SI) and compression ignition (CI) engines, hydrogen reduces the volumetric efficiency of
the engine [75]. Inside the engine, hydrogen expands more than liquid fuels, thus reduc-
ing the volumetric efficiency of hydrogen engines. This is predictable, because the intake
manifold generally heats up to help the evaporation of liquid fuels (diesel and gasoline).
Energies 2021, 14, 6209
According to researchers, the stoichiometric composition of hydrogen–air fuel includes 8 of 20
about 30% of hydrogen, and the ratio in volume of fully vaporized gasoline in gasoline
and air mixtures is 20 [76,77]. This reduction in volumetric efficiency in a diesel engine
using
usinghydrogen
hydrogen based onon
based the percentage
the percentage ofof
energy
energyis isshown
shownininFigure
Figure6 6[78].
[78].Figure
Figure77
shows the same amount of reduction in a study on an SI engine using methane
shows the same amount of reduction in a study on an SI engine using methane as the base as the base
fuel, with
fuel, with ananLHV
LHV value
valueclose
closetotothat
thatofofgasoline
gasoline(50)
(50)and
andhydrogen
hydrogen[79].
[79].According
Accordingtoto
Figures
Figures 6 6and
and7,7,with
withthe
theincrease
increaseininthe theamount
amountofofhydrogen
hydrogenininthethefuel,
fuel,the
theamount
amount ofof
volumetric
volumetric efficiency ofof
efficiency the
theengine
engine decreases,
decreases, and the
and higher
the higherthe amount
the amount ofofhydrogen,
hydrogen, thethe
greater
greaterthe
the decrease
decreaseinin
volumetric
volumetric efficiency.
efficiency.

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21

Figure 6. 6.
Figure Volumetric
Volumetricefficiency
efficiencychanges
changes with different percentages
with different percentagesofofhydrogen
hydrogeninin
thethe
CI CI engine
engine [78].
[78].

Figure7.
Figure Volumetric efficiency
7.Volumetric efficiency changes
changes with
with different
different percentages of hydrogen in the SI engine [79].
[79].

This reduction
This reduction in
in volumetric
volumetric efficiency
efficiencywill
willreduce
reduceengine
enginepower
powerandandtorque.
torque.Figure
Figure8
shows the amount of power and torque reduction in a CI engine using 25 and
8 shows the amount of power and torque reduction in a CI engine using 25 and 50% 50% hydro-
hy-
gen [78]. As can be seen from the diagrams, with an increasing percentage of hydrogen,
drogen [78]. As can be seen from the diagrams, with an increasing percentage of hydro-
engine
gen, power
engine and torque
power decrease.
and torque This power
decrease. and torque
This power and reduction has also has
torque reduction beenalso
reported
been
for gasoline engines using hydrogen [80].
reported for gasoline engines using hydrogen [80].
 This reduction in volumetric efficiency will reduce engine power and torque. Figure
8 shows the amount of power and torque reduction in a CI engine using 25 and 50% hy-
drogen [78]. As can be seen from the diagrams, with an increasing percentage of hydro-
Energies 2021, 14, 6209 gen, engine power and torque decrease. This power and torque reduction has also 9beenof 20
reported for gasoline engines using hydrogen [80].

Figure 8.
Figure Brake power
8. Brake power and
and brake
brake torque
torque changes
changes with
with different
different percentages
percentages of
of hydrogen
hydrogen in
in the
the CI
CI engine
engine [73].
[73].

Brake Thermal
5.2. Brake Thermal Efficiency
Efficiency
Because of hydrogen’s large large molecular thermal
thermal capacity
capacity and
and the
the fact
fact that
that adding
adding hy-
hy-
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21
drogen to
drogen to internal
internal combustion
combustion engines
engines causes
causes the
the combustion
combustion phase
phase to
to shift
shift and
and decreases
decreases
combustion efficiency
combustion efficiency[78],
[78],asashydrogen
hydrogen is is added
added to and
to SI SI and CI engines,
CI engines, the brake
the fuel fuel brake
ther-
thermal efficiency (BTE) drops. Figure 9 shows the reduction in the amount
mal efficiency (BTE) drops. Figure 9 shows the reduction in the amount of BTA in a CIA of BTA in a
engine
CIA by adding
engine by addinghydrogen
hydrogen to to
thethe
base fuel,
base fuel,which
whichisisdiesel.
diesel.Similar
Similar results been
results have been
reported by
reported by other
other researchers
researchersfor forthe
thereduction
reductionof ofBTE
BTEin inthese
theseengines
engines[81,82].
[81,82].

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Brake
Brake thermal
thermal efficiency
efficiency with
withdifferent
differentpercentages
percentagesof
ofhydrogen
hydrogenin
inthe
theCI
CIengine
engine[78].
[78].

Figure
Figure10
10 shows
shows the
the reduction
reductionininBTE
BTEin
in aa methane-based
methane-basedSI
SIengine
enginewith
withthe
theaddition
addition
of
of hydrogen.
hydrogen.
Several aspects of hydrogen fuel are being investigated, including the addition of
hydrogen to various fuels with varying operating characteristics. However, one of the
essential characteristics to evaluate in a performance study is the change in compression
ratio. Engines with greater operational compression ratios offer better thermal efficiency
and higher power output according to prior research [71–74,83]. The hydrogen engine’s
power loss can be minimized by raising the compression ratio [84]. Other researchers have
reported an increase in BTE as the compression ratio increases [80,85].
 Figure 9. Brake thermal efficiency with different percentages of hydrogen in the CI engine [78].

Figure 10 shows the reduction in BTE in a methane-based SI engine with the addition
Energies 2021, 14, 6209 10 of 20
of hydrogen.

Figure 10.Brake
Figure10. Brakethermal
thermalefficiency
efficiencywith
withdifferent
differentpercentages
percentagesofofhydrogen
hydrogenininthe
theSISIengine
engine[75].
[75].

5.3. Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption

Several aspects of hydrogen fuel are being investigated, including the addition of
In a diesel
hydrogen dual-fuel
to various fuelsengine, hydrogen
with varying burns faster
operating and has a However,
characteristics. nine-fold higher
one of flame
the es-
speed. The rate of heat release increases as the load and hydrogen substitution
sential characteristics to evaluate in a performance study is the change in compressionincrease [86].
As a result, mixing hydrogen with diesel fuel in a CI engine raises the brake-specific
ratio. Engines with greater operational compression ratios offer better thermal efficiency fuel
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21
consumption.
and higher power Figure 11 demonstrates
output according tohow adding
prior hydrogen
research to diesel
[71–74,83]. fuel increases
The hydrogen the
engine’s
quantity of BSFC produced at various speeds.
power loss can be minimized by raising the compression ratio [84]. Other researchers have
reported an increase in BTE as the compression ratio increases [80,85].

5.3. Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption

In a diesel dual-fuel engine, hydrogen burns faster and has a nine-fold higher flame
speed. The rate of heat release increases as the load and hydrogen substitution increase
[86]. As a result, mixing hydrogen with diesel fuel in a CI engine raises the brake-specific
fuel consumption. Figure 11 demonstrates how adding hydrogen to diesel fuel increases
the quantity of BSFC produced at various speeds.

Figure 11.
Figure Brake thermal
11. Brake thermal efficiency
efficiency with
with different
different percentages
percentages of
of hydrogen
hydrogen in
in the
the SI
SI engine
engine [78].
[78].
By injecting hydrogen in varied hydrogen ratios, the equivalent brake-specific fuel
By injecting hydrogen in varied hydrogen ratios, the equivalent brake-specific fuel
consumption (BSFC) increases compared to what observed when using gasoline, due to
consumption (BSFC) increases compared to what observed when using gasoline, due to
the reduction in engine power (when hydrogen injection methods that lower engine power
the reductionChanging
are utilized). in engine power
water (whenand
injection hydrogen injection
ignition times, methods
on the that lower
other hand, engine
can eliminate
power
the degradation caused by hydrogen injection and successfully lower BSFC [87–91]. can
are utilized). Changing water injection and ignition times, on the other hand,
eliminate the degradation caused by hydrogen injection and successfully lower BSFC [87–
91].
6. Impact of Hydrogen Fuels on Emissions of Internal Combustion (IC) Engines
The most hazardous pollutants generated by gasoline engines are HC, CO, and NOx .
6. Impact ofhas
Hydrogen Hydrogen
a numberFuels on Emissions
of unique of Internal
combustion Combustion
properties that aid (IC) Engines
in the full burning
The most
of gasoline [92].hazardous pollutants
Diesel engines generated
produce moreby gasoline engines
hazardous emissionsareincluding
HC, CO, and NOx.
nitrogen
Hydrogen
oxides (NOhasx ), a number
unburned of unique
hydrocarbonscombustion
(UHC), properties
carbon that
monoxideaid in
(CO), the full
and burning
soot. of
These
gasoline [92]. Diesel
contaminants engines
have the produce
potential morehuman
to affect hazardous emissions
health and theincluding
environment.nitrogen ox-
Diesel
ides (NOalso
engines x), unburned
emit morehydrocarbons
pollutants than (UHC), carbon
any other typemonoxide
of engine (CO),
in the and soot.
world, These
which con-
makes
taminants have
them a major the potential
source to affect[92].
of air pollution human health and the environment. Diesel engines
also emit more pollutants than any other type of engine in the world, which makes them
a major source of air pollution [92].
Hydrogen is used as a motor fuel because it decreases pollutants. In fact, hazardous
chemicals are not produced as a result of hydrogen combustion. Various studies have fo-
cused on using hydrogen as a fuel in vehicles in the past 30 years [93,94].
 Energies 2021, 14, 6209 11 of 20

Hydrogen is used as a motor fuel because it decreases pollutants. In fact, hazardous

chemicals are not produced as a result of hydrogen combustion. Various studies have
focused on using hydrogen as a fuel in vehicles in the past 30 years [93,94].

6.1. CO Emissions
The emission of carbon monoxide (CO) causes holes in the ozone layer and is danger-
ous for the environment. Incomplete combustion in the engine will lead to the formation
of carbon monoxide [95]. Adding hydrogen to internal combustion engines reduces the
amount of carbon monoxide emissions in CI and SI engines. Because hydrogen is not a
hydrocarbon fuel since its molecules lack carbon, increasing the hydrogen mass fraction in
the fuel would lower the rate of hydrocarbon synthesis [96]. Furthermore, a high hydrogen
flame raises cylinder pressure and improves combustion efficiency. Because of its high
diffusion coefficient, pre-combustion hydrogen produces a more homogenous flammable
mixture and improves oxygen availability. As a result of these factors, the amount of carbon
monoxide produced by internal combustion engines is lowered [97]. Figures 12 and 13
show the reduction of carbon monoxide emissions using hydrogen as a fuel in diesel and
gasoline engines, respectively.

6.2. CO2 Emissions

Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) production can be caused by a lack of oxygen and a low
temperature in the combustion chamber. This is harmful to the environment because of its
influence on global warming [98]. The H/C rate increases when hydrogen is employed
as a fuel in internal combustion engines, resulting in a reduction in combustion time and
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEWan increase in combustion efficiency [99]. Hydrogen, on the other hand, is a clean 12 offuel
21
that does not release CO2 and, therefore, lowers CO2 emissions [100]. Researchers have
reported examples of emission reductions, as shown in Figures 14 and 15.

Figure
Figure 12.12. Reducing
Reducing ofof
CO CO emissions
emissions using
using hydrogen
hydrogen fuel
fuel inin diesel
diesel engines
engines [78].
[78].
 Energies 2021, 14, 6209 12 of 20

Figure 12. Reducing of CO emissions using hydrogen fuel in diesel engines [78].

Energies
Energies2021,
2021,14,
14,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 13
13of
of21
21
Figure 13. Reducing of CO emissions using hydrogen fuel in gasoline engines [79].
Figure 13. Reducing of CO emissions using hydrogen fuel in gasoline engines [79].
6.2. CO2 Emissions
Carbon dioxide (CO2) production can be caused by a lack of oxygen and a low tem-
perature in the combustion chamber. This is harmful to the environment because of its
influence on global warming [98]. The H/C rate increases when hydrogen is employed as
a fuel in internal combustion engines, resulting in a reduction in combustion time and an
increase in combustion efficiency [99]. Hydrogen, on the other hand, is a clean fuel that
does not release CO2 and, therefore, lowers CO2 emissions [100]. Researchers have re-
ported examples of emission reductions, as shown in Figures 14 and 15.

Figure 14.
Figure
Figure Reducing
14.
14. ReducingCO
ReducingCO2 2emission
CO emission using
2 emissionusinghydrogen
usinghydrogenfuel
hydrogen in
fuel
fuel diesel
inin engines
diesel
diesel [78].
engines
engines [78].
[78].

Figure
Figure
Figure 15.
15.
15. Reducing
Reducing
ReducingCOCO
CO 2 emission
2 2emission
emission using
using
using hydrogen
hydrogen
hydrogen fuel
fuel
fuel inin
in gasoline
gasoline
gasoline engines
engines
engines [75].
[75].
[75].

6.3.
6.3.UHC
UHCEmissions
Emissions
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbonsthat
thatdo
donot
notburn
burncompletely
completelyin inthe
thecombustion
combustionprocess
processinside
insidethe
thecom-
com-
bustion
bustion chamber
chamber will
will emit
emit unburned
unburned hydrocarbon
hydrocarbon (UHC)
(UHC) in
in the
the exhaust
exhaust gases
gases [35].
[35]. As
As
mentioned,
mentioned, adding
adding hydrogen
hydrogen toto the
the fuel
fuel will
will homogenize
homogenize the
the mixture
mixture and
and increase
increase the
the
 Energies 2021, 14, 6209 13 of 20

6.3. UHC Emissions

Hydrocarbons that do not burn completely in the combustion process inside the
combustion chamber will emit unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) in the exhaust gases [35].
As mentioned, adding hydrogen to the fuel will homogenize the mixture and increase the
flame speed. In addition, due to the lack of hydrocarbons in hydrogen fuel, its addition to
combustion engine fuels will reduce the emission of unburned hydrocarbons. Reduced
Energies
Energies 2021,2021,
14, x 14,
FOR x FOR
PEERPEER REVIEW
REVIEW emissions of unburned hydrocarbons can be seen in Figures 16 and 17 for diesel 14 of 14
21 of
and21

gasoline engines.

Figure
Figure
Figure 16.
16. Reducing
16. Reducing UHCUHC
Reducing UHC emissions
usingusing
emissions
emissions using hydrogen
hydrogen
hydrogen fuel
fuel
fuel in in
in diesel
diesel
diesel engines
[85]. [85].
engines
engines [85].

Figure
Figure
Figure 17.
17. Reducing
17. Reducing UHCUHC
Reducing UHC emissions
usingusing
emissions
emissions using hydrogen
hydrogen
hydrogen fuel
fuel
fuel in in
in gasoline
gasoline engines
engines [75]. [75].

6.4. NO
6.4. NOxxEmissions
Emissions
6.4. NO x Emissions
Nitrogen oxides
Nitrogen oxides are
are produced
produced bybythe
thehigh
high temperatures
temperatures achieved
achieved during
during thethe
combus-
com-
Nitrogen oxides are produced by the high temperatures achieved during the com-
tion process in the combustion chamber. Some nitrogen in the air combines with oxygen in
bustion process in the combustion chamber. Some nitrogen in the air combines with oxy-oxy-
bustion process in the combustion chamber. Some nitrogen in the air combines with
the presence of heat. The air/fuel ratio, compression ratio, engine speed, ignition timing,
gen gen in presence
in the the presence of heat.
of heat. The The air/fuel
air/fuel ratio,ratio, compression
compression ratio,
ratio, engine
engine speed,
speed, ignition
ignition
and thermal dilution have an effect on the amount of NOx produced [101,102].
timing,
timing, and and thermal
thermal dilution
dilution havehave an effect
an effect on amount
on the the amount of xNO
of NO x produced
produced [101,102].
[101,102].
Because of its features such as fast flame speed, low ignition energy required, and
Because
Because of offeatures
its its features
such such
as as fast
fast flame flame
speed,speed,
low low ignition
ignition energyenergy required,
required, and and
high adiabatic temperature, hydrogen is regarded as a suitable fuel for combustion. These
high adiabatic temperature, hydrogen is regarded as a suitable fuel
high adiabatic temperature, hydrogen is regarded as a suitable fuel for combustion. These for combustion. These
features
features contribute
contribute to a to a rise
rise in thein temperature
the temperature of theof working
the working
fluidfluid
in thein cylinder
the cylinder as well
as well
as to an increase in NO (Figures
as to an increase in NOX (Figures 18 and 19).
X 18 and 19).
Energies 2021, 14, 6209 14 of 20

Energies2021,
Energies 2021,14,
14,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 15of
15 of21
21
featurescontribute to a rise in the temperature of the working fluid in the cylinder as well
as to an increase in NOx (Figures 18 and 19).

Figure
Figure 18.
Figure18. Increase
18.Increase of
Increaseof NO
ofNO emissionsusing
NOxxxemissions usinghydrogen
hydrogenfuel
fuelin
indiesel
dieselengines
engines[78].
[78].
[78].

Figure19.
Figure
Figure 19.Increase
19. Increaseof
Increase ofNO
of NOxxxemissions
NO emissionsusing
usinghydrogen
hydrogenfuel
fuelin
ingasoline
gasolineengines
engines[85].
[85].
[85].

6.5. Soot
6.5.Soot Emissions
SootEmissions
Emissions
6.5.
Soot emission
Sootemission
emissionis is
is specific to
specificto diesel
todiesel engines.
dieselengines. Due
engines.Due
Dueto to the
tothe heterogeneous
theheterogeneous nature
heterogeneousnature
natureofof diesel
ofdiesel
diesel
Soot
combustion, there is aspecific
wide distribution of fuel/air ratios within the cylinder. Soot forma-
combustion, there
combustion, there isis aa wide
wide distribution of of fuel/air ratios
ratios within
within the
the cylinder.
cylinder. Soot
Soot for-
for-
tion mainly takes place in thedistribution
fuel-rich zone fuel/air
at high temperature and high pressure. Soot
mation mainly
mation mainly takes
takes place
place in
in the
the fuel-rich
fuel-rich zone
zoneat at high
high temperature
temperature andand high
highpressure.
pressure.
is typical to fuel–air mixtures that are too lean to auto-ignite or to support a propagating
Sootisistypical
Soot typicalto tofuel–air
fuel–airmixtures
mixturesthatthatare
aretoo
toolean
leanto toauto-ignite
auto-igniteor orto
tosupport
supportaapropa-
propa-
flame. It can also be caused by fuel–air mixtures that are too rich to ignite [103].
gating flame. It can also be caused by fuel–air mixtures that are too rich
gating flame. It can also be caused by fuel–air mixtures that are too rich to ignite [103]. to ignite [103].
Thehigh
The highcoefficient
coefficientof ofhydrogen
hydrogenemission
emissionand andthethegreat
greataccess
accessof
offuel
fueltotooxygen
oxygenwill
will
increasethe
increase thehomogeneity
homogeneityof of the
theflammable
flammablemixture
mixtureand and the
theamount
amountof ofH/C
H/Cin inthe
thetotal
total
 Energies 2021, 14, 6209 15 of 20

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 21

The high coefficient of hydrogen emission and the great access of fuel to oxygen will
increase the homogeneity of the flammable mixture and the amount of H/C in the total
fuel,which
fuel, whichwill
willreduce
reducesoot
sootinindiesel
dieselengines
engines[104].
[104].Figure
Figure2020shows
showsexamples
examplesofofsoot
soot
reduction using hydrogen in diesel engines.
reduction using hydrogen in diesel engines.

Figure20.
Figure IncreaseofofNO
20.Increase NO x emissions
x emissions
using
using hydrogenfuel
hydrogen fuelinindiesel
dieselengines
engines[61].
[61].

7. Conclusions
7. Conclusions
Energy should be cleaner and more efficient in the future. In comparison with other
Energy should
alternative be cleanerisand
fuels, hydrogen the more
most efficient
effectiveintothe future.
reduce or In comparison
eliminate withvehicle
harmful other
alternative fuels, hydrogen is the most effective to reduce
emissions and their environmental impact. Because hydrogen is one of the numerous or eliminate harmful vehicle
emissions
elements andfound their environmental
in the atmosphere,impact. Because
it is readily hydrogen
available and oneis one
of theof the
most numerous ele-
useful alterna-
ments found
tives to fossil infuels
the atmosphere,
today. Currently, it is readily
the most available and one of
used technique forthe most useful
hydrogen alterna-is
generation
tives to fossil fuels
steam–methane reforming. today. Currently, the most used technique for hydrogen generation is
steam–methane reforming.
In this review, the effect of adding hydrogen as a fuel on the performance and exhaust
In this of
emissions review,
sparkthe effect(SI)
ignition of adding hydrogen as
and compression a fuel(CI)
ignition on the performance
engines and ex-
was investigated.
haust emissions of spark ignition (SI) and compression
The following results were obtained after reviewing the literature: ignition (CI) engines was investi-
gated. The following results were obtained after reviewing the literature:
1. When hydrogen is used as an additive in spark ignition (SI) and compression ignition
1. When hydrogen
(CI) engines, it is used
will as anthe
reduce additive in spark
volumetric ignitionof(SI)
efficiency theand compression
engine because the ignition
lower
(CI) engines,
heat value (LHV) it will of reduce
hydrogenthe volumetric
(120 MJ/kg) efficiency
is higherofthan the those
engine ofbecause the MJ/kg)
diesel (43.6 lower
heat
andvalue (LHV)
gasoline (43.4of MJ/kg).
hydrogen (120
This MJ/kg) isinhigher
reduction than those
volumetric of diesel
efficiency (43.6 MJ/kg)
will reduce engine
and gasoline
power (43.4 MJ/kg). This reduction in volumetric efficiency will reduce engine
and torque.
2. power
Due to and thetorque.
high molecular thermal capacity of hydrogen and to the fact that with the
2. Due to the of
addition high molecular
hydrogen thermalcombustion
in internal capacity of engines,
hydrogen and
the to the fact
progress that
of the with the
combustion
addition of hydrogen
phase changes in internal
and reduces combustionefficiency,
the combustion engines, the in SIprogress of the combustion
and CI engines the addition
phase changesas
of hydrogen and reduces
a fuel the combustion
decreases brake thermal efficiency, in SI(BTE).
efficiency and CI engines the addi-
3. tion of hydrogen
Hydrogen burnsasquickly
a fuel decreases
and has abrake thermal
nine-fold fasterefficiency
flame speed (BTE).in a diesel dual-fuel
engine. The
3. Hydrogen burnsheat releaseand
quickly ratehasrises as the load
a nine-fold risesflame
faster and hydrogen
speed in asubstitution
diesel dual-fuelrises.
For this reason, adding hydrogen to diesel fuel in CI engines
engine. The heat release rate rises as the load rises and hydrogen substitution rises. increases brake-specific
Forfuel
thisconsumption
reason, adding (BSFC). By injecting
hydrogen hydrogen
to diesel fuel in at CIvaried
engines ratios, the equivalent
increases brake-
brake-specific
specific
fuel fuel consumption
consumption (BSFC). By (BSFC) increases
injecting compared
hydrogen to whatratios,
at varied observed when using
the equivalent
gasoline duefuel
brake-specific to the reduction in
consumption engine
(BSFC) power (when
increases compared hydrogen
to whatinjection
observed methods
when
that gasoline
using lower engine due to power are utilized).
the reduction in engine power (when hydrogen injection meth-
4. ods Adding
that lowerhydrogenenginetopower internalare combustion
utilized). engines reduces the amount of carbon
monoxide emissions from
4. Adding hydrogen to internal combustion engines CI and SI engines. Because hydrogen
reduces the isamount
not a hydrocarbon
of carbon
fuel since its molecule lacks carbon, increasing
monoxide emissions from CI and SI engines. Because hydrogen is not the hydrogen mass fraction in the fuel
a hydrocarbon
will
fuel lower
since its the rate oflacks
molecule hydrocarbon synthesis.the
carbon, increasing Furthermore,
hydrogen mass a high hydrogen
fraction in theflame
fuel
will lower the rate of hydrocarbon synthesis. Furthermore, a high hydrogen flame
raises the cylinder’s pressure and improves combustion efficiency. Because of its high
Energies 2021, 14, 6209 16 of 20

raises the cylinder’s pressure and improves combustion efficiency. Because of its
high diffusion coefficient, pre-combustion hydrogen produces a more homogenous
flammable mixture and improves oxygen availability. As a result of these factors, the
amounts of carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) produced by
internal combustion engines are lowered.
5. When hydrogen is used as a fuel in internal combustion engines, the H/C rate
rises, resulting in a decrease in combustion time and an improvement in combustion
efficiency. On the other hand, because hydrogen is a clean fuel, it does not emit CO2 ,
and its usage reduces CO2 emissions.
6. Because of its features such as fast flame speed, low ignition energy required, and
high adiabatic temperature, hydrogen is regarded as a suitable fuel for combustion.
These features contribute to a rise in the temperature of the working fluid in the
cylinder as well as to an increase in NOx .
7. The high coefficient of hydrogen emission and the greater access of fuel to oxygen
will increase the homogeneity of the flammable mixture and the amount of H/C in
the total fuel, which will reduce the soot in diesel engines.
8. With the usage of hydrogen in the majority of internal combustion engines, haz-
ardous exhaust pollutants are reduced, and engines’ overall performance improves.
When considering its environmental and economic benefits, hydrogen is a clean and
sustainable energy source.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.S.; methodology, G.N. and T.Y.; validation, B.S., T.Y.
and G.N.; formal analysis, G.N. and T.Y.; investigation, B.S.; resources, B.S. and T.Y.; data curation,
B.S. and T.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, B.S.; writing—review and editing, B.S. and T.Y.;
visualization, B.S.; supervision, B.S.; project administration, B.S. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. Please contact to [email protected].
Acknowledgments: This research was conducted in collaboration with the Faculty of Agriculture,
Bu Ali Sina University.
Conflicts of Interest: The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses,
or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

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