Unit 1

Basic structure of Skin

&
its function

Dr. Meenakshi Gupta

Senior Assistant Professor
University Institute of Pharmacy
C. S. J. M. University Kanpur U.P
 Content

 Structure of skin
 Epidermis & its Function
 Keratinization
 Dermis
 Sebaceous glands
 Sweat Glands
 Hypodermis/ Subcutaneous
 Appendages of the Skin
 Skin Flora
 Skin pH
 Structure of skin

 Surface area of skin in adults is approximately 1.5–2m2

 Skin is made up of dead cells, epithelium, connective tissue,
muscles, nerves, blood vessels, as well as the so-called
appendages (i.e., accessory structures), including the nails, hair,
and glands, such as sebaceous glands, eccrine and apocrine
sweat glands.
 Skin Structure

Consists of three layers

1. Epidermis - superficial region
2. Dermis - middle region
3. Hypodermis - deepest region
 Subcutaneous layer deep to skin
(not technically part of skin)
 Mostly adipose tissue
 Epidermis
 It is stratified squamous epithelium which is terminally differentiated.
 Thickness:0.05-0.1mm.
 Keratinocytes constitute more than 95% of epidermal cells.
 The “brick like “ shape of keratinocyte is provided by cytoskeleton made
of keratin intermediate filaments.
 As epidermis differentiates, cells gets flattened. This process involves the
filament aggregating protein called filaggrin.
 Keratin and filaggrin comprises 90% of mass of epidermis.
 Epidermis
1. Stratum corneum - is horny layer made up of
dead cells that continuously shed and are
replaced by cells in the adjacent layer. This
layer is very thick compared to the others; it
contains 15–30 layers of dead cells.
2. Stratum lucidum, the translucent or clear layer,
contains 3–5 rows of densely packed flat dead
cells.
3. Stratum granulosum, the granular layer, consists
of 3–5 layers of flattened keratinocytes that
begin to die. In this layer, granules can be
observed in the cells, this is from where the
name comes.
4. Stratum spinosum, contains 8–10 rows of cells.
This layer is responsible for lipid and protein
synthesis.
 Epidermis
 Melanocytes are found in the basal cell layer and are responsible
for melanin production. Melanin is a pigment that gives the skin its
color. Melanin also provides photo protection to the skin against
ultraviolet (UV) light.
 Carotene is another pigment responsible for skin color. It is also
found in the epidermis and has an orange-yellowish color.
Carotene is also found in a variety of fruits(orange) &
vegetables(carrot). One eating of a lot of vegetables containing
carotene may actually get an orange skin tone.
 Langerhans cells play an important role in the body’s immune
system.
 Merkel cells tend to lie close to sensory nerve endings in the
stratum basale. They function as touch receptors.
Stratum corneum
 It is made up of tightly packed, water-resistant dead cells called
corneocytes, which are embedded in a complex lipid material(called
intercellular lamellar lipids) made up of ceramides, cholesterol, and
fatty acids
 Corneocytes contain hygroscopic compounds, that forms the natural
moisturizing factor which plays a vital role in maintaining the hydration
of the SC
 natural moisturizing factor components are water soluble, they are
easily leached from the cells with excessive use of skin cleansing with
soaps and cause dry, flaky, and uncomfortable skin
 Keratinization
 also known as cornification,
 It is the dynamic process of epidermal renewal.
 It begins in the basal layer where new skin cells, known as
keratinocytes, are formed and are continually pushed
upward where their composition and shape change
significantly
 cells reach the third layer, stratum granulosum, most have
stopped dividing and have started producing keratin.
 Cells migrate and eventually they fall off.
 The cells in the epidermis contain a lot of keratin which
resists damage.
 Dead skin cells, shed from the surface of the skin. This
process is referred to as desquamation
 CELL LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS

TIMING OF MOVEMENT BETWEEN LAYERS:

• Stratum Basal cells take to 15- 30 days to
reach Stratum Corneum.
• Cells remain in S. Corneum an additional 2
weeks before they are shed.
• Replace cells of the skin once every two
months
 Epidermis

 Vitamin D production also occurs in the epidermis, which is known to be the main source of
vitamin D in humans. UV light stimulates the conversion of the precursor7-dehydrocholesterol
(also known as provitamin D3) to vitamin D3.
 Epidermis

 Epidermis contains no blood vessels; it is entirely dependent on the

underlying dermis for nutrient delivery.
 It is made up of a large quantity of keratin, which is responsible for the
skin’s strength.
 Functions of the Epidermis

 Bacteria, viruses and other infectious agents are kept out,

helping prevent infections on your skin.
 Water and nutrients are kept in for the body to use.
 Body parts that are more susceptible to injury, like the soles of
your feet and palms of your hands, have a thicker epidermis
for even better protection.
 Functions of the Epidermis

 Amount of melanin in each cell differs among people. The more

melanin you have, the darker your skin tone.
 Sunlight can increase the amount of melanin produced in
melanocytes to a degree. This is what causes a suntan.
 The other important role of melanocytes is filtering out ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the sun. UV radiation is the leading cause of
skin cancer. It also causes wrinkles. People with darker skin have
more melanin, so they can filter out more UV radiation and are
less likely to get skin cancer and wrinkles.
 Dermis
 The dermis is located under the epidermis that provide supporting frame to the epidermis,
supplying it with nutrients and oxygen via the blood capillaries
 It is strong, flexible connective tissuefibroblasts (which produce the intercellular substance
and collagen fibers), nerves and sensory organs, blood vessels, sebaceous glands, sweat
glands, and hair follicles as well as connective tissue containing collagen and elastin
fibers.
 Collagen fibers give the skin its strength, while elastin is responsible for the skin’s elasticity,
i.e., its ability to spring back after being stretched. If these fibers are damaged, for
example, as a result of aging, the skin becomes loose and looks thin and wrinkled. In
addition, collagen plays an important role in wound healing
 Nerve endings are responsible in transmitting sensory signals, such as touch, pressure, pain,
and temperature from the skin.
 Blood vessels play an essential role in supplying the epidermis with oxygen and nutrients.
In addition, they are particularly important in the regulation of body temperature, along
with the sweat glands.
 As water from sweat evaporates from the skin, it has a cooling effect, which subsequently
decreases the body temperature.
 Sebaceous glands

 Sebaceous (sǐ BAY shuss) glands are

oil glands.
 They have tiny ducts that open into
each hair follicle.
 Sebaceous glands are part of the
pilosebaceous unit, which also
includes hair follicles and a small
muscle.
Sebaceous (Oil) Glands

 Widely distributed
 Most develop from hair follicles
 Become active at puberty
 Sebum
 Oily holocrine secretion
 Bactericidal
 Softens hair and skin
 In normal skin, there is a continuous movement of water from the deeper layers toward the
superficial layer where water eventually evaporates.
 skin hydration reflects the water content of the SC and represented as “transepidermal
water loss” (TEWL).
 TEWL is diffusion of water through the skin
 TEWL is not visible to the naked eye
 If the skin is damaged by either physical or chemical agents, the barrier function is
somewhat compromised and an increase in TEWL can be observed.
Moisture Content of Normal Skin

 Water is necessary for the skin to maintain its flexibility. Otherwise skin is
overly dry, it loses its ability to stretch, causing it to crack and peel more
easily.
 Faster peeling means the skin cells are being shed more rapidly, which
triggers an increase in the rate of cell production in the basal layer and the
process of cell growth, migration, and shedding is accelerated
 the barrier is significantly weakened since cells providing the barrier do not
have time to fully mature
 Skin Flora

 Human skin is continuously inhabited by many different bacteria and fungi

in a healthy individual are harmless and are even beneficial.
 Microbes on the skin are generally divided into two categories:
 resident flora and
 transient flora
Skin Flora : Resident flora

 The resident flora (resident microbiota) consists of microorganisms residing

under the superficial cells of the stratum corneum and can also be found
on the surface of the skin.
 The most common bacteria include Corynebacterium, Streptococcus,
Staphylococcus, Neisseria, Peptococcus, Acinetobacter, and
Proprionibacterium species, while the most common fungal genus is
Malassezia.
 The resident flora protects the host from pathogenic bacteria
 Skin Flora : Transient flora
 Transient or temporary skin flora refers to the microorganisms that transiently
colonise the skin.
 This includes bacteria, fungi and viruses, which reach the hands, for
example, by direct skin-to-skin contact or indirectly via objects
 The transient flora can be nonpathogenic or pathogenic microorganisms
depending on what we touch
 if the resident flora is disturbed, transient microorganisms can colonize,
proliferate, and produce disease.
 Skin pH

 Maintenance of the resident flora and their barrier

function requires the skin pH to be maintained
 Normally, the skin surface is slightly acidic and ranges
between pH 4.5 and 5.5
 barrier homeostasis, SC integrity, and cohesion as well
as the bacterial defense mechanisms
 Appendages of the Skin

 Derivatives of the epidermis

 Sweat glands
 Oil glands
 Hairs and hair follicles
 Nails
 Sweat Glands

 Two main types of sweat glands

1. Eccrine sweat glands—abundant on
palms, soles, and forehead
 Sweat: 99% water, NaCl, vitamin C,
antibodies, dermcidin, metabolic wastes
 Sweat is acidic: pH of 4-6

 Simple coiled tubular gland- secretory

part lies coiled in the dermis and the duct
extends to open in funnel shaped pore at
the skin surface.
 Function in thermoregulation- prevent
overheating of the body.
 Sweat pore

Eccrine
gland
Sebaceous
gland Duct
Dermal connective
tissue
Secretory cells
(b) Photomicrograph of a
sectioned eccrine gland (220x)
Figure 5.5b
 Sweat Glands

2. Apocrine sweat glands —

 Approx. 2000
 Larger the eccrine glands, tend to lie
deeper in the dermis, and ducts
empty into hair follicles
 Secrete sweat + fatty substances and
proteins
 Milky or yellowish color
 Normally odorless until bacteria on the skin decompose organic
molecule = source of body odor

 Functional from puberty onward (as

sexual scent glands?)
 Hypodermis/ Subcutaneous
 It is a fat layer beneath the dermis, which is called the hypodermis (hypo means “below”),
subcutaneous (sub means “under,” cutaneous means “skin”) layer, or subcutis.
 Hypodermis is a loose connective tissue that stores fat in the fat cells.
 It acts as a cushioning layer to protect the vital organs from trauma and provides
protection against cold. In addition, the fat serves as an energy deposit for the body and
defines the body’s contours.