AQA Computer Science A-Level

4.5.6 Representing images,

sound and other data
Concise Notes

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Specification:

4.5.6.1 Bit patterns, images, sound and other data:

Describe how bit patterns may represent other forms of data, including
graphics and sound.

4.5.6.2 Analogue and digital:

Understand the difference between analogue and digital:
● data
● signals

4.5.6.3 Analogue/digital conversion:

Describe the principles of operation of:
● an analogue to digital converter (ADC)
● a digital to analogue converter (DAC)
Know that ADCs are used with analogue sensors.
Know that the most common use for a DAC is to convert a digital audio
signal to an analogue signal.

4.5.6.4 Bitmapped graphics:

Explain how bitmaps are represented.
Explain the following for bitmaps:
● resolution
● colour depth
● size in pixels
Calculate storage requirements for bitmapped images and be aware
that bitmap image files may also contain metadata.
Be familiar with typical metadata.

4.5.6.5 Vector graphics:

Explain how vector graphics represents images using lists of objects.
Give examples of typical properties of objects.
Use vector graphic primitives to create a simple vector graphic.

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4.5.6.6 Vector graphics versus bitmapped graphics:
Compare the vector graphics approach with the bitmapped graphics
approach and understand the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Be aware of appropriate uses of each approach.

4.5.6.7 Digital representation of sound:

Describe the digital representation of sound in terms of:
● sample resolution
● sampling rate and the Nyquist theorem
Calculate sound sample sizes in bytes.

4.5.6.8 Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI):

Describe the purpose of MIDI and the use of event messages in MIDI.
Describe the advantages of using MIDI files for representing music.

4.5.6.9 Data compression:

Know why images and sound files are often compressed and that other
files, such as text files, can also be compressed.
Understand the difference between lossless and lossy compression and
explain the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Explain the principles behind the following techniques for lossless
compression:
● run length encoding (RLE)
● dictionary-based methods

4.5.6.10 Encryption:
Understand what is meant by encryption and be able to define it.
Be familiar with Caesar cipher and be able to apply it to encrypt a
plaintext message and decrypt a ciphertext. Be able to explain why it is easily
cracked.
Be familiar with Vernam cipher or one-time pad and be able to apply it
to encrypt a plaintext message and decrypt a ciphertext. Explain why Vernam
cipher is considered as a cypher with perfect security.
Compare Vernam cipher with ciphers that depend on computational
security.

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 Bit patterns, images, sound and other data

● Computers use bit patterns to represent ​all forms of data

Analogue and digital

● Analogue ​data is ​continuous

● Digital data is ​discrete
● Analogue signals can take ​any values ​and can change ​as frequently as required
● Digital signals must always take​ one of a specified range of values​ and can only
change value ​at specified intervals

Analogue signal Digital signal

● Digital signal traces are characterised by ​sharp edges​ and ​vertical drops
● Analogue signals tend to be ​smooth curves

Analogue/digital conversion

Digital to analogue conversion

● When converting from digital to analogue, a ​digital to analogue converter​ is used
● The device reads a bit pattern representing an analogue signal and outputs an
alternating, analogue, electrical ​current
● Their most common use is converting digital ​audio signals​ to ​analogue signals

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Analogue to digital conversion
● Sensors like ​temperature sensors​ and ​microphones ​output an analogue signal
● Computers use ​analogue to digital converters ​to convert the analogue signal to a
digital bit pattern.
● The device takes a ​reading ​of an analogue signal at ​regular intervals​ and records
the value in a process called ​sampling
● Samples are taken at a specific ​frequency​, given in ​Hertz
● This determines the ​number of samples taken per second
● Greater sampling frequencies result in a ​better reproduction​ of an analogue signal

Bitmapped graphics
● Images are broken into ​pixels
● Each pixel is assigned a ​binary ​value
● The ​value assigned​ to a pixel ​determines the colour ​of the pixel
● An image’s ​resolution ​can be expressed as a ​number of dots per square inch​,
where a dot is a pixel
● Resolution can also refer to the ​number of pixels​ in an image
● The ​number of bits​ assigned to a pixel is called the image’s ​colour depth
● The ​number of different colours​ that can be represented by n pixels is ​2n​
● To calculate the ​storage required​ for a bitmap image, multiply the ​number of pixels
by the​ bit depth
● This produces a ​minimum value​ as files may also contain ​metadata​ such as the
image’s ​width​, ​height​, ​date created​ or ​colour depth

Vector graphics
● Geometric objects ​and ​shapes ​are used to create images
● Properties f​ or each geometric object or shape in the image are stored in a ​list

Vector graphics versus bitmapped graphics

Vector Graphics Bitmapped Graphics

Can be scaled ​without losing quality Become ​blurry ​or even ​pixelated ​when
enlarged

Well suited to simple images which use Used for storing photographs
shapes but ​no good for photographs

Frequently use ​less storage space ​than Often use ​more storage space ​than vector
bitmapped graphics graphics

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 Digital representation of sound

● Computers represent sound as a ​sequence of samples

● Each sample takes a ​discrete digital value
● The number of samples per second is called the ​sampling rate
● The ​sampling rate ​is expressed in ​Hertz
● The​ number of bits​ allocated to each sample is called the ​sample resolution
● Higher sample resolutions result in ​greater audio quality​ but also​ increased file size
● The size of a sound sample is calculated by ​multiplying ​the ​duration of the sample
in seconds​, the ​sampling rate in Hertz​ and the ​sample resolution
● Metadata ​can be stored in an audio file, ​increasing the space required ​to store the
file

The Nyquist Theorem

● The sampling rate must be ​at least twice​ the frequency of the signal

Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)

● Used with ​electronic musical instruments​ which can be ​connected to computers

● Stores sound as a series of​ event messages
● Each event message represents an ​event​ in a piece of music

Event messages could contain information such as:

● The ​duration ​of a note
● The ​instrument ​with which a note is played
● How ​loud ​a note is (its ​volume​)
● If a note should be ​sustained

Benefits of MIDI
● MIDI allows ​easy manipulation​ of music ​without loss of quality
● The instruments on which notes sound can be changed
● Notes can be ​transposed
● The ​duration ​of notes can be altered
● MIDI files are often ​smaller ​than sampled audio files

Drawbacks of MIDI
● MIDI ​can't be used for storing speech
● MIDI sometimes results in a​ less realistic sound ​than sampled recordings

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 Data compression

● FIles are compressed to​ reduce their size

● Smaller files can be​ transferred faster
● Images ​are often compressed
● Sound files ​and ​text files​ can also be compressed
● There are​ two categories​ of compression, ​lossy ​and ​lossless

Lossy compression
● Files are ​reduced in size
● Some information is lost​ in the process
● The quality of a file is ​reduced
● There is ​no limit​ to the amount of compression that can be applied

Lossless compression
● Files are ​reduced in size
● No information​ is lost
● The quality of a file ​remains the same
● There ​is a limit​ to the amount of compression that can be applied
● Two methods are​ run length encoding ​and ​dictionary-based methods
● Both methods are most effective on files that contain ​lots of repeated data

Run length encoding (RLE)

● Removes ​repeated information
● Replaces it with ​one occurance ​of the information
● This is followed by the ​number of times​ it is to be repeated
● Not all data ​is suitable for compression by run length encoding

Dictionary-based methods
● A ​dictionary ​containing ​repeated data​ is ​appended ​to the file
● Results is a ​significant reduction​ in size
● The dictionary used to compress the data ​must be present​ in the file
● This will​ increase the size​ of the compressed file

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 Encryption

● The process of ​scrambling data

● So that it ​cannot be understood if intercepted
● This ​keeps it secure during transmission
● Unencrypted information is called ​plaintext
● Encrypted information is called ​ciphertext
● A ​cipher ​is a type of encryption method
● In order to decrypt ciphertext, you must know the ​encryption method ​used
● You must also know the ​key ​used to encrypt the plaintext

Caesar ciphers
● Encrypt information by ​replacing characters
● One character is ​always ​replaced by the ​same character
● There are two types of Caesar cipher - ​shift ciphers ​and ​substitution ciphers
● Can be​ easily cracked

Shift ciphers
● All letters in the alphabet are ​shifted by the same amount
● This amount forms the key
● Can be cracked as soon as one letter’s replacement is discovered

Substitution ciphers
● Letters are ​randomly replaced
● A little better than shift ciphers but still​ relatively easy ​to crack

Vernam ciphers
● An example of a​ one-time pad ​cipher
● Each key should only ever be used ​once
● The key must be ​random
● The key must also be ​at least as long​ as the plaintext
● Works by:
1. Aligning ​the characters of the ​plaintext ​and the ​key
2. Converting each character to ​binary
3. Applying the ​XOR ​operation to the bit patterns
4. Converting the result back to a character
● The ​only cipher​ mathematically proven to be ​completely secure

Computational security
● All ciphers​ other than the Vernam cipher ​are crackable
● But not within a ​reasonable timeframe​ given ​current computing power

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