Scribd
Upload
47 views42 pages

Methods of Proof and Disproof

This document discusses various methods of mathematical proof including direct proof, proof by contradiction, proof by cases, existence proofs, and uniqueness proofs. It provides definitions and examples of different types of statements that can be proven like theorems, propositions, lemmas, and definitions. Steps of a basic proof structure are also outlined.

Uploaded by

Michael James A. Daligdig
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
47 views42 pages

Methods of Proof and Disproof

This document discusses various methods of mathematical proof including direct proof, proof by contradiction, proof by cases, existence proofs, and uniqueness proofs. It provides definitions and examples of different types of statements that can be proven like theorems, propositions, lemmas, and definitions. Steps of a basic proof structure are also outlined.

Uploaded by

Michael James A. Daligdig
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 42

METHODS OF PROOF AND DISPROOF

 1. Given: If Davao is in Luzon then Cebu is


in Mindanao.
 Converse:
 Inverse:
 Contrapositive:
 Converse:
 Inverse:
 Contrapositive:
p q p→q q→p ¬p→¬q ¬q→¬p
A proof is an argument that convinces others
that something is true beyond doubt.
It is a logical progression of statements that
show truth or falsity to a given argument by
using:
Theorems
Definitions
Postulates
Axioms
Lemmas
 Definition: an explanation of meaning of a term.
 Theorem: an important and interesting true mathematical statement.
 Proposition: a (relatively) less important theorem.
 Lemma: a true mathematical statement that is useful in establishing the
truth of other true statements, and is less important than a theorem.
 Corollary: a true mathematical statement that can be deduced from a
theorem (or proposition) simply.
 Proof: an explanation of why a statement is true.
 Axiom: a true mathematical statement whose truth is accepted
without proof.
 Conjecture: a statement that is believed to be true, but is not proven
to be true.
 All proofs have a basic outline: beginning, middle, and end.

 The beginning is where we assume something to be true and by stating


definitions and necessary theorems.

 The middle of our proof will include statements, each following


logically from one to the next that will lead the reader to the end.

 The “end” is our conclusion and the statement we are trying to prove.
Also, it should be pointed out that we write QED, a Latin abbreviation
meaning “that which was to be shown,” after our proof to indicate
completion.
 1. Direct Proof
 2. Indirect Proof

Direct Vs Indirect Proof


Direct proofs always assume a hypothesis is
true and then logically deduces a conclusion.

 In contrast, an indirect proof has two forms:

 Proof By Contraposition.
 Proof By Contradiction.
 A. Direct Proof
A direct proof is the most straightforward
in its structure. It is constructed using a
sequence of simple statements starting with
the hypothesis and leading to the desired
conclusion.
 1. Proof by Contraposition
 To prove the assertion: For all , if P(x)
then Q(x) by contraposition is to prove
the contrapositive of the assertion
directly.
 That is, prove that ~Q(x) implies ~P(x),
for all xЄS using the direct proof.
 Consider an implication: p→q

 If it can be shown that p is false, then the


implication is always true
◦ By definition of an implication

 Note that you are showing that the


antecedent is false
 -this happens when the hypothesis p is
always false.
 Consider the statement:
◦ All criminology majors in MSU-IIT are female
◦ Rephrased: If you are a criminology major and
you are in MSU-IIT, then you are female

 Since there are no criminology majors in


MSU-IIT, the antecedent is false, and the
implication is true (vacuously true)
 Consider an implication: p→q

 If it can be shown that q is true, then the


implication is always true
◦ By definition of an implication

 Note that you are showing that the


conclusion is true
 -this happens when we know that the
consequence q is always true.
 Consider the statement:
◦ If x<0 then �2 + 1 > 0, ��� ��� �������� �.
 A mathematical statement that aims to
exhaust all possibilities by splitting the
problem into parts and considering each
piece or case separately is called proof by
cases, sometimes referred to as proof by
exhaustion.
 Show a statement is true by showing all
possible cases are true
� �
 Prove that for all a,b∈ ℝ, = , where b ≠ 0
� �
 Cases:
◦ Case 1: a ≥ 0 and b > 0 a a a
 
 Then |a| = a, |b| = b, and b b b
◦ Case 2: a ≥ 0 and b < 0 a a a a
  
 Then |a| = a, |b| = -b, and b b b b
◦ Case 3: a < 0 and b > 0 a a a a
  
 Then |a| = -a, |b| = b, and b b b b
◦ Case 4: a < 0 and b < 0 a a a a
 Then |a| = -a, |b| = -b, and   
b b b b
 This is showing the definition of a bi-
conditional p iff q.

 Given a statement of the form “p if and


only if q”
◦ Show it is true by showing p implies q and q
implies p.
 Prove that n is even if and only if �2 is
even, for all integers n.
 Given a statement: x P(x)
 We only have to show that a P(c) exists for
some value of c

 Two types:
◦ Constructive: Find a specific value of c for which
P(c) exists
◦ Nonconstructive: Show that such a c exists, but
don’t actually find it
 Assume it does not exist, and show a contradiction
 Show that a square exists that is the sum
of two other squares
◦ Proof: 32 + 42 = 52

 Show that a cube exists that is the sum of


three other cubes
◦ Proof: 33 + 43 + 53 = 63
 A theorem may state that only one such
value exists

 To prove this, you need to show:


◦ Existence: that such a value does indeed exist
 Either via a constructive or non-constructive
existence proof
◦ Uniqueness: that there is only one such value
 If the real number equation 5x+3=a has a solution
then it is unique

 Existence
◦ We can manipulate 5x+3=a to yield x=(a-3)/5
◦ Is this constructive or non-constructive?

 Uniqueness
◦ If there are two such numbers, then they would fulfill the
following: a = 5x+3 = 5y+3
◦ We can manipulate this to yield that x = y
 Thus, the one solution is unique!
 Given a universally quantified statement, find a single
example which it is not true

 Note that this is DISPROVING a UNIVERSAL


statement by a counterexample

 x ¬R(x), where R(x) means “x has red hair”


◦ Find one person (in the domain) who has red hair

 Every positive integer is the square of another integer


◦ The square root of 5 is 2.236, which is not an integer

You might also like