Chemistry

Chemistry
Leucippus and Democritus
Proposed that everthing is composed of small bit of matter that is indivisible and called it
"Atom" (Atomos - indivisible)

Roman Lucretius
Matter is composed of tine, indivisible particles and in constant random
Aristotle
He thought that all materials on Earth were not made of atoms, but of the four elemetns,
Earth, Fire, Water, and Air. He believed all substances were made of small amounts of
these four elements of matter
John Dalton
The main points of dalton's atomic theory were:
Elements are made of extremely small particles called atoms
Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties.
Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical
compounds.
In Chemical Reactions, atoms are combined, seperated, or rearrenged

Micheal Faraday
He hypothesized that invisible fields of electricity and magnetism carried these forces
through space, and that these "lines of force" need not always move in straight lines as
newton would have predicted. He further showed that electricity could create
magnetism, and that magnetism could generate electricity. His ideas laid the
groundwork for the modern scientific concept of energy that would be crucial to
Einstein's later work
Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer
Devised the periodic table where elements arranged in order of increasing atomic
weights that show periodic physical and chemical properties

Chemistry 1
 Dmitri Mendeleev - Father of the Periodic Table
Lothat Meyer - Rearranged the Periodic Table
Henry Gowyn Jeffreys Mosely
The Scientist that pioneered the concept of the atomic number, volunteered for combat
duty in world war 1, and was killed by a turkish sniper. As a result of his death, scientist
were later prevented from enlisting in the military
Reason for the atomic number
Branches of Chemistry

1. inorganic Chemistry - Deals with the study of all substances not classified as
organic, mainly those compounds that do not contain carbon-carbon bonds

2. Organic Chemistry - deals with the study of the properties and reactions of most
carbon-carbon containt compounds

3. Analytical Chemistry - deals with the indentification of the components and

composition of materials

4. Physical Chemistry - Deals with the study of properties and changes of matter and
their relation to energy

5. Biochemistry - deals with the study of substances and processes occurring in living
things

6. Theoretical Chemistry - deals with the use of mathematic and computers to

understand the principles behind observed chemical behavior and to design and
predict the properties of new substances

Matter - Is Anything that has mass and takes up space.

This includes anything you have ever touched, tasted

Solid - arranged in regular, repeating patterns

Liquid - flow easily around one another

Gas - Very far apart

Plasma - an ionized gaseous substance becomes highly electrically conductive to

the point that long-range electric and magnetic fields dominate the behaviour

Macroscopic - visible to the naked eye; not microscopic.

Microscopic - so small as to be visible only with a microscope

Chemistry 2
 Properties of matter
^
Are There properties determined without changing the identity of the substance?
^^
Chemical, Physical

Chemical:
How does the substance reaction to the presence of
Air
Acid
Base
Water
Other Chemicals
Physical :
Does the properties depend on amount of substance?
^^
No Yes
^^
Intensive Extensive
Intensive :
Color
Melting point
Boiling Point
Density
Extensive:
Mass
Volume
Length
Shape
Extensive Property
A physical property that will change if the amount of matter changes.
Intensive Property
A physical property that will be the same regardless of the amount of matter

Chemistry 3
 ATOM
Nucleus - Combi of Neutrons & Protons
Proton - Positive Charge (+)
Neutron - No Charge (wala of course)
Electron - Negative Charge (-)
JJ thompson - Plum-pudding Model
Discovered Electrons
Earnest Rutherford - Nuclear Model
Discovered the protons & nucleus
James Chadwick - Neutron Model
Discovered Neutrons
John Dalton - Dalton's Four Postulates
Billiard Ball Model

Heterogeneous mixture
A mixture in which composition is not uniform throughout:

is a combination of two or more substance whose components are not equally

distributed and can be easily separated by mechanical means, thus two or more
phases are present.

not equally distributed

colloid and suspension
Suspension

Homogenous mixture - is a mixture in which the composition throughout is uniform;

solution (Identical)

Equally distributed

Colloids
Mixture in which the particles are dispersed throughout but are not heavy enough to
settle out
Have properties of both solutions and suspensions
Cannot be separe
Two types of Pure Substances

1. Elements

Chemistry 4
 One type of atoms

1. Compounds

One type of particle

Pure Substance
Has exactly the same characteristic properties and composition. It is a form of matter
that cannot be separated into two different particles/elements by any physical change.
Can be classified as elements and compounds.

Element
A chemical substance that is made up of a particular kind of atom and cannot be broken
down or transformed by a chemical reaction

Elements are divided into 3 classes

1. Metals - mercury, tungsten, chromium, gold, copper, iron

2. Non-metals

3. Metalloids

Metals
Good conductor of heat and electricity
Lustrous or exhibit shininess
malleable and ductile
High tensile strenght
High Melting point
High Densities
Non - Metals
Insulators (Except graphite)
Do not exhibit luster
Brittle and easily breaks
Low tensile strength
Low melting points
Low densities

Compound
When two distinct elements are chemically combined, chemical bonds form between

Chemistry 5
 their atoms and the result is called chemical compound.

Matter

anything the has mass and volume

mass - the amount of matter
volume - The space consumed by the object

Separation of Mixtures
Physical vs Chemical
Physical Separation
Magnetic separation - A process in which magnetically susceptible material is extracted
from a mixture using a magnet. This separation technique can be useful in mining iron
as it is attracted to a magnet.
decantation - The careful pouring off a liquid from a mixture containing both a liquid and
a solid.
chromatography - The separation of a mixture in which the components move at
different rates, usually used when separating the components of an ink or dye.
filtration - The Mechanical or physical separation of a mixture based on the size of the
particles in that mixture.
distillation -The process of separating a mixture of two or more liquids based on the
boiling points of the liquids in the mixture.
centrifugation - Process of separating a mixture based on the densities of the particles
in that mixture
Chemical separation techniques of a pure substance
Electrolysis - The chemical separation of the hydrogen atoms from the oxygen atom in a
water molecule.

Significant Figures
Rules

1. All non-zero digits are significant

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

1. Zeroes written between two non-zero digits are significant

2. Zeroes written to the right(trailing zeroes) of a decimal point and to the left(leading
zeroes) of a non-zero digit are not significant

Chemistry 6
 3. Zeroes written to the right of a non-zero digit(leading zeroes) may or may not be
significant.
Ex. Php

4. Zeroes written to the right of a decimal point and to the right of a non-zero digit are
significant

Rounding off numbers

A rounded number has about the same value as the number you start with, but it is less
exact
General Rules in rounding off

Precision versus Accuracy

Accuracy - refers to how closely a measured value agrees with the correct value.
Precision - refers to how closely individual measurements agree with each other.

Rule

1. Move the decimal point to the right of the first nonzero digit

2. Count the number of places when you move the decimal point and write it as the
exponent of 10^a

3. If the decimal point is moved from left to the right, the exponent is a negative.

4. 0.0000000005385 x 10^-10

5. In most cases, scientific notation is express in three significant figures, the answer
is

6. Move the decimal point to the left of the first nonzero digit

7. Count the number of places when you move the decimal point and write it as the
exponent of 10^b

8. 5,125,487,000,000 = 5.125487 x 10^12

9. In most cases, scientific notation is express in three significant figures, the answer
is 5.13 x 10^12

a. Left to right - Negative

b. Right to left - Positive
Measurements

Chemistry 7
 Means assigning number to a distinct object or event in comparison with other
objects or events

It became the basis of trade, science, technology and quantitative research

International System of Units (SI)

A system devised to reduce physical measurements of a mathematical combination of
seven base units

To convert from a larger unit to a smaller one, Multiply

To convert from a smaller unit to a larger one, divide.

The Biggest difference between the way the metric system works and the way the
english system works is that the metric system

What is Chemical Formula?

A Chemical formula indicates the elements present in a compound and the relative
number of atoms of each.

For example, H20 is the chemical formula for water; it indicates that water consists
of hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a 2:1 ratio

The formula contains the symbol for each element, accompanied by a subscript
indicating the number of atoms of that element. By convention, a subscript of 1 is
omitted.

Chemical compounds is formed when two or more ions combine. Let us try calcium
chloride. The symbol and charge of calcium and chloride ions are Ca² and Cl

The second step is to balance the charges(only the numerical value) by identifying
multiplier or multipliers.
-Then finally, write the multipliers as subscript of the elements.
Ca1Cl2 or CaCl2

Methods in writing Chemical Formulas

Traditional or Stack Method - this method utilizes the ending

A. "ic" which means that the higher charge is used
ex: ferric oxide - charges of Fe are 3+ and 2+
Fe ^3+(2) o^2-(3) = Fe2O3
B. "ous" which means the lower charge is used

Chemistry 8
 Ex : Ferrous chloride - as given above, the charges of Fe are 3+ and 2+
Fe^2+(1) Cl^1-(2)

Methods in writing Chemical Formulas

2. Roman Numerals - this method uses roman numerals to represent the charge of
-Using latin prefixes like the ones below given
Compounds
A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements combined in a specific
ratio and held together by chemical bonds
Familiar examples of compounds are water and salt(sodium chloride)

Ionic Compounds and Bonding

The resulting electrically neutral compound, sodium chloride, is represented with the
chemical formula NaCl.
The chemical formula, or simply formula, of an ionic compound denotes the constituent
elements and the ratio in which they combine.
Name of cation + name of ion, suffix "ide"
Naming ions and ionic compounds
A monatomic ion is nmaed by changing the ending of the element's name to -ide
Cl- is chloride O² - is oxide
some metals

Percent Composition
% composition = atomic weight of element x number of atoms / formula or molecular
mass * 100%

Illustrative Examples

Determine the percentage composition of the following components

Equations
Fm = 39(2) + 16 = 94 (Atomic mass units)
%K = 39x2/94 x 100% = 82.98% K
%Zn = 65.38/99.38 x 100% = 65.79 % Zn
%O = 16x2/99.38 x 100% = 32.30% O
%O = 16/94 x 100% = 17.02% O
%H = 1x2/99.38 x 100% = 2.0% H

Chemistry 9
 Pressure of a Gas
Pressure - os a fprce exerted by the substance per unit area on another substance
Boyle's Law
V = 1/P or V = K/P
Eliminate the = symbol and replace with a proportionality constant, K
Condition 1: V1 = K1/P1 or K1 = V1P1
Condition 2: V2 = K2/P2 or K2 = V2P2
K1 = K2
V1P1 = V2P2

Finals
Electron Configuration

The electron Configuration of an atom describes how the electrons are distributed
among the orbitals.

Aufbau Principle
sspspsdpsdpsfdpsfdp

Pauli Exlusion Principle

This says that no two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of four
quantum numbers. The consequence of this principle can be stated simply as: Only
two electrons may occupy an orbital, and they must have different spins.

Hunds Rule
Orbital Diagram
Helium - He - 1s^2
Neon - Ne - [He]2s^2 2p^6
Argon - Ar - [Ne] 3s^2 3p^6
Krypton - Kr [Ar] 3d^10 4s^2 4p^6
Xenon - Xe - [Kr] 4d^10 5s^2 5p^6
Radon - Rn - [Xe] 4f^14 5d^10 6s^2 6p^6
Octet Rule

Most of the Representative or main group elements form ions by either gaining,
sharing or losing electrons, due to their low ionization energy and nonmetals tend to

Chemistry 10
 gain electrons due to their high electron affinity

Ions

Are atoms or groups of atoms that are electricall charged.

The electrostatic attraction that holds together the oppositely charged ions, the
cations and anions, in the solid compound is referred to as ionic bond

Low melting point and boiling point

Low Enthalpies of fusion and vaporization

Property

1. State of Ambient temperature

2.) Physical Properties
3,) Relative melting point/boiling point
4.) Electrical Conductivity when dissolved in water
5.) Electrical Conductivity in the liquid state

Ionic Compound

1. Crystalline solid

2. Hard, Brittle

3. High

4. Good

5. Good

Molecular Compound

1. Solid, Liquid, gas

2. Solids can be soft, waxy, flexible, or crystalline

3. Low

4. Poo (for most molecular compounds)

5. Poor

Organic Chemistry
Carbon atoms are the most versatile building blocks of molecules

Chemistry 11
 -With a total of 6 electrons, a carbon atom has 2 in the first shell and 4 in the second
shell

Carbon has little tendency to form ionic bonds by losing and gaining 4 electrons.

Carbon has little tendency to form ionic bonds by losing or gaining 4 electrons.

Instead, carbon usually completes its valance shell by sharing electrons with other
atoms in four covalant bonds. Carbon atoms are the most versatile building blocks
of molecules.

Name Molecular Formula

Methan CH4

Chemistry 12