Basic Mechanical
Engineering
(ME10003)
Lecture 4
Module 1
Concepts of Thermodynamics
Dr. Santosh Kumar Nayak
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Fundamental example to distinguish 2nd law from 1st law
It is common experience that a cup of
hot coffee left in a cooler room
eventually cools off.
This process satisfies the 1st law of
thermodynamics since the amount of
energy lost by the coffee is equal to the
amount gained by the surrounding air.
Now let us consider the reverse process-the hot coffee
getting even hotter in a cooler room as a result of heat
transfer from the room air.
We all know that this process never takes place. Yet, doing
so would not violate the first law as long as the amount of
energy lost by the air is equal to the amount gained by the
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coffee.
Limitations of 1st law of thermodynamics
The 1st law places no restriction on the direction of a
process, but satisfying the first law does not ensure that the
process can actually occur.
The 1st law is concerned with the quantity of energy and the
transformations of energy from one form to another with no
regard to its quality.
The 2nd law also asserts that energy has quality as well as
quantity.
The 2nd law provides the necessary means to determine the
quality as well as the degree of degradation of energy during
a process.
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Thermal energy reservoirs
In the development of the second law of
thermodynamics, it is very convenient to have
a hypothetical body with a relatively large
thermal energy capacity (mass × specific heat)
that can supply or absorb finite amounts of
heat without undergoing any change in
temperature. Such a body is called a thermal
energy reservoir, or just a reservoir.
Oceans, lakes, and rivers as well as the atmospheric air can be considered
as thermal energy reservoirs because of their large thermal energy
storage capabilities or thermal masses.
A reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat is called a source, and
one that absorbs energy in the form of heat is called a sink.
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Heat engines
Work can easily be converted to
other forms of energy, but
converting other forms of energy
to work is not that easy.
we conclude that work can be converted to heat directly and
completely, but converting heat to work requires the use of
some special devices. These devices are called heat
engines.
Heat engines are the devices which convert thermal / heat
energy to mechanical work. Ex: Internal combustion
engines, power plants etc.
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Characteristics of Heat engines
They receive heat from a high-
temperature source (solar energy,
oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
They convert part of this heat to
work (usually in the form of a
rotating shaft).
They reject the remaining waste
heat to a low-temperature sink (the
atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
They operate on a cycle.
Heat engines and other cyclic
devices usually involve a fluid to and
from which heat is transferred while
undergoing a cycle. This fluid is
called the working fluid.
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Heat engines
The net work output of this
power plant is simply the
difference between the total
work output of the plant and
the total work input. It is
given by:
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Thermal efficiency
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Numerical
Try this
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Solution
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Numerical
A cyclic heat engine operates between a source temperature of 800 oC
and a sink temperature of 30 oC. What is the least rate of heat
rejection per kW net output of the engine?
Try this
Solution
This is the least rate of heat rejection.
Numerical
A reversible power cycle operates between a reservoir at temperature
T and a lower temperature reservoir at 200 K. At steady state, the
cycle develops 40 kW of power while rejecting 1000 kJ/m of energy
by heat transfer to the cold reservoir.
Try this
Solution
. . .
Given, T2 = 200 K Wcycle Q1 Q2 40kW
Q1 = (1000/60) kW
. .
For a reversible engine, Q1 / Q2 T / T 1 2
=> T1 = T = 951.9 K
The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Kelvin-Planck Statement
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount
of work.
That is, a heat engine must exchange heat
with a low-temperature sink as well as a
high-temperature source to keep operating.
Kelvin–Planck statement can also be
expressed as no heat engine can have a
thermal efficiency of 100 percent or as for
a power plant to operate, the working fluid
must exchange heat with the environment
as well as the furnace.
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Refrigerators and heat pumps
We all know from experience that heat is transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature, that is, from high-temperature mediums to low
temperature ones. This heat transfer process occurs in nature without
requiring any devices. The reverse process, however, cannot occur by
itself.
The transfer of heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-
temperature one requires special devices called refrigerators.
Refrigerators are also cyclic devices. The working fluid used in the
refrigeration cycle is called a refrigerant.
The most frequently used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle, which involves four main components: a compressor,
a condenser, an expansion valve, and an evaporator
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Refrigerators
and heat pumps
Basic components of a refrigeration
system and typical operating
conditions
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Working of Refrigerators
Refrigerant enters the compressor as a
vapor and is compressed to the
condenser pressure. It leaves the
compressor at a relatively high
temperature and cools down and
condenses as it flows through the coils
of the condenser by rejecting heat to
the surrounding medium.
It then enters a capillary tube where its pressure and temperature drop
drastically due to the throttling effect.
The low-temperature refrigerant then enters the evaporator, where it
evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space. The cycle is
completed as the refrigerant leaves the evaporator and reenters the
compressor.
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Coefficient of Performance
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Heat pumps
Another device that transfers heat
from a low-temperature medium to
a high-temperature one is the heat
pump.
Refrigerators and heat pumps
operate on the same cycle but
differ in their objectives.
The objective of a refrigerator is to
maintain the refrigerated space
at a low temperature by
removing heat from it.
The objective of a heat pump,
however, is to maintain a heated
space at a high temperature. This
is accomplished by absorbing heat
from a low-temperature source
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Example of Heat
pumps
Most existing heat pumps use the
cold outside air as the heat source
in winter, and they are referred to
as air-source heat pumps.
The COP of such heat pumps is
about 3.0 at design conditions.
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COP of heat pump
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Numerical
Try this
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Solution
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Numerical
A domestic food refrigerator maintains at a temperature of -15oC.
The ambient air temperature is 30oC. If heat leaks into the freezer
at the rate of 1.75 kJ/s, what is the least power necessary to
pump this heat out continuously?
Try this
Numerical
A reversible heat engine operates between two reservoirs at temperatures
of 600oC and 40oC. The engine drives a reversible refrigerator which
operates between reservoirs at temperatures of 40oC and -20oC. The heat
transfer to the heat engine is 2000kJ and the net work output of the
combined engine refrigerator plant is 360 kJ.
(a) Evaluate heat transfer to the refrigerant and the net heat transfer to the
reservoir at 40oC.
(b) Reconsider (a) given that the efficiency of the heat engine and the COP
of the refrigerator are each 40% of their maximum possible values.
Try this
Solution
The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Clausius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle
and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a
lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body.
It simply states that a refrigerator
cannot operate unless its
compressor is driven by an external
power source, such as an electric
motor.
This way, the net effect on the
surroundings involves the
consumption of some energy in the
form of work, in addition to the
transfer of heat from a colder body
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a warmer one. 31
Equivalence of Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements
The Kelvin–Planck and the Clausius statements are equivalent
in their consequences, and either statement can be used as the
expression of the second law of thermodynamics. Any device
that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement also violates the
Clausius statement, and vice versa.
Proof that the
violation of the
Kelvin–Planck
statement leads to the
violation of the
Clausius statement.
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Equivalence of Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements
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Reversible and irreversible processes
The second law of thermodynamics states that no heat engine can
have an efficiency of 100 percent. Then what is the highest
efficiency?
The engine which is executed by using idealized processes. The
idealized process is called the reversible process.
Reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed
without leaving any trace on the surroundings. Processes that are
not reversible are called irreversible processes.
Reversible processes actually do not occur in nature. They are
merely idealizations of actual processes.
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Irreversibilities
The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called
irreversibilities.
They include friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing of two fluids,
heat transfer across a finite temperature difference, electric
resistance, inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical reactions.
The presence of any of these effects renders a process irreversible.
Carnot cycle
Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle i.e. all the processes are reversible
in nature.
Heat engines and refrigerators that work on reversible cycles serve
as models to which actual heat engines and refrigerators can be
compared.
The theoretical heat engine that operates on the Carnot cycle is
called the Carnot heat engine. The Carnot cycle is composed of four
reversible processes-two reversible isothermal and two reversible
adiabatic
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processes. 35
Carnot principles
The efficiency of an
irreversible heat engine is
always less than the
efficiency of a reversible
one operating between the
same two reservoirs.
The efficiencies of all
reversible heat engines
operating between the
same two reservoirs are
the same.
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Carnot heat engine
The hypothetical heat engine that operates on the reversible
Carnot cycle is called the Carnot heat engine. The thermal
efficiency of any heat engine, reversible or irreversible, is given
by
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Carnot heat engine
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Numerical
Try this
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Solution
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Carnot cycle
Numerical
Air of mass 0.5 kg as an ideal gas executes a Carnot cycle having a
thermal efficiency of 50%. The heat transfer to the air during the
isothermal expansion is 40 kJ. At the beginning of isothermal expansion
the pressure is 7 bar and the volume is 0.12 m3. Determine,
(a) the maximum and minimum temperatures for the cycle,
(b) The volume at the end of isothermal expansion,
(c) The work and heat transfer for each of the four processes.
Try this
Solution
