Science and Engineering of Composite Materials 2023; 30: 20220193

Review Article

Jawad Ahmad*, Mohamed Moafak Arbili, Ahmed Farouk Deifalla, Abdeltif Salmi,
Ahmed M. Maglad and Fadi Althoey

Sustainable concrete with partial substitution

of paper pulp ash: A review
https://doi.org/10.1515/secm-2022-0193
received January 11, 2023; accepted March 01, 2023
1 Introduction
Abstract: The paper industry is one of the biggest sources The cement business must deal with problems such as
of trash and stands out for its effects on both human rising energy costs, requirement to limit CO2 ejections,
health and ecological harmony. However, these waste and delivery of raw materials of appropriate quality
could also help the building sector become more ecolo- [1–5]. Beginning in 1990, it is predicted that cement
gically friendly. Beyond ecological considerations, modern output would increase steadily. This was anticipated
construction often requires materials to make concrete since it is the second-most-consumed resource on Earth,
durable, resisting heavy loads and less harmful environ- next to water. Especially in developing countries like
mental influences. This creates opportunities for waste China and India, where there is a great need for cement
management and practical application. This review pro- for the building of houses and other buildings, the com-
vides a detail overview of eco-friendly construction ideas pany is growing swiftly [6]. The building industry is
that deal with the practical use of materials that are often always looking for new sustainable resources, which
discarded (paper pulp ash). The impact they had on the are often chosen from leftovers, owing to the scarcity of
characteristics of the construction material, the best mix-
raw resources and the environmental effects connected
ture composition, and a discussion of the benefits and
with their exploitation [7–10].
drawbacks of the “green” addition received the majority
In general, the green economy is related to three
of the attention (paper pulp ash). The essential concrete
areas: environmental, social, and economic, to preserve
properties such as consistency, setting time, flowability,
the standard of living [11]. For constructive conversation
compressive strength, flexural strength, tensile strength,
requirements, engineers must take into account a struc-
and impact strength are reviewed. Furthermore, the cost
ture’s “lifecycle” costs, which include costs for infrastruc-
benefits and environmental benefits of paper pulp ash as
ture design, upkeep, destruction, and recycling throughout
construction materials are also discussed. The study con-
the course of its useful life. To build sustainably, it is neces-
cludes by suggesting a line of inquiry for the creation of an
sary to pay close attention to available physical, environ-
environmentally friendly structural material for a sustain-
mental, and technical resources as well as issues with
able future.
human health, energy conservation for both existing and
Keywords: concrete, paper pulp ash, strength properties future structures, and management of construction technol-
ogies and procedures. A new generation of environmentally
 friendly materials is really required in order to increase
* Corresponding author: Jawad Ahmad, Department of Civil durability and energy efficiency, as well as to enable recy-
Engineering, Military College of Engineering (NUST), Risalpur, cling rate and cost reductions [12–19].
44000, Pakistan, e-mail: [email protected]
It becomes more common for diverse waste kinds to
Mohamed Moafak Arbili: Department of Technical Civil Engineering,
Erbil Technical Engineering College, Erbil Polytechnic University, be produced in varying volumes and quality. Therefore,
44001, Erbil, Iraq using new solid sustainability practices to create effective
Ahmed Farouk Deifalla: Structural Engineering Department, Future plans for collection, transportation, and processing tech-
University in Egypt, New Cairo 11845, Egypt nologies in accordance with academic and engineering
Abdeltif Salmi: Department of Civil Engineering, College of
techniques have become necessary to maintain and pro-
Engineering, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-kharj,
11942, Saudi Arabia
tect human health in urban communities and to increase
Ahmed M. Maglad, Fadi Althoey: Department of Civil Engineering, methodical productive capacity at all phases of waste
College of Engineering, Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia disposal [20–24]. Paper trash has been discovered as a

Open Access. © 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License.
2  Jawad Ahmad et al.

significant component of solid waste, and it is being Research on the hydraulic properties, sensitivity,
examined whether it can be recycled into a variety of and potential use of paper ash waste as cementing ingre-
new goods, particularly in the building and construction dients have been done previously. At temperatures
industry. between 700 and 750°C, research [30] showed that
The pulp and paper companies have long been seen paper waste ash may be transformed into sticky lime
as major users of supplies such as wood and water, as compounds. According to research [31], biochar made
well as of energy in the form of electricity, and significant from chicken litter, rice husk and pulp, and papermill
contributors to environmental pollution releases. The sludge was used as a cement binder, replacing cement
demand for pulp cannot be met locally in many regions up to 1% of the overall volume. The authors demonstrate
of the globe, which has prompted the paper industry to that when contrasted to plain concrete, rice husk bio-
look for non-wood raw sources [25]. Global estimates char, paper mill sludge, and pulp at 0.1% of total
place the annual use of items made from the paper volume are the most suitable binders, with similar ten-
pulp at over 500 million tons [26], or around 58 kg per sile strength values for the paper pulp and papermill
person. It is anticipated that it will contribute between sludge biochar concrete.
2 and 5% of the overall output of paper and pulp, depend- The aim of this study is to advance the modern
ing on the technology used (on a fresh weight basis). Addi- knowledge of the use of paper pulp ash for construction
tionally, a significant volume of wastewater releases up to materials by evaluating the technological, mineral, and
0.1 million tons of contaminants into the environment each physical characteristics of specimens produced utilizing
year [27]. According to research, Nigeria produces an excess various substitute proportions of paper pulp ash and con-
of wasted organic (biodegradable) papers, which calls for necting those characteristics to the physical behaviors
their alternative, economically viable usage in order to and mineral content of the specimens. This study was
reduce environmental deterioration and health risks [28]. conducted to examine current approaches to using waste
The pulp sectors’ present difficulties include producing products (paper pulp) as green additives in concrete and
high-quality pulp at a cheap price while protecting the envir- contrast them with more traditional approaches. Waste-
onment by using progressively less energy, water, and raw based additives provide a long-term solution to the need
materials [25]. The applicability of various binders for mate- for concrete preparation by improving the material’s
rials based on paper pulp composites has been studied. mechanical qualities, bringing down the cost of manu-
Figure 1 illustrates how the paper could have an impact on facturing, and creating long-term waste disposal options.
ecological quality. Additionally, utilizing wastepaper as a The present study examines the chemical characteristics,
substitute for cement has two advantages. The first is main- fresh properties, and hardened properties of concrete
taining environmental quality, and the second is that it may with varied amounts of paper pulp ash, as well as envir-
be used in lieu of cement to produce concrete [29]. onmental issues.

Figure 1: Dumped waste paper which causes environmental pollution [29].

 Sustainable concrete  3

2 Chemical compositions of paper

pulp ash
The chemical makeup of the mineral admixtures plays a
critical role in establishing their usefulness as a compo-
nent in the cement blending process. Figure 2 depicts the
chemical makeup of paper ash. These findings show that
the major chemical constituents, SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3
(33.59%), are less than 70%. The wastepaper did not
meet the specifications for pozzolanic material as stated
in ASTM C-618 [32].
This study indicates that silica and lime (CaO) are the
Figure 3: Dry paper pulp [25].
main components of wastepaper ash (SiO2). The major
fundamental chemicals required for cement hydration
and strength development are lime, silica, and alumina,
and their concentrations have a significant impact on the 2.1 Preparation of paper pulp ash
chemical activity of admixtures in cement. Wastepaper
had a greater silica concentration than ordinary Portland Previous research [25] found that wastepaper from the
cement (OPC) did. This suggests that wastepaper ash school environment were collected, cut into little pieces
would lead to outcomes that are adequate in terms of using a paper cutter, and then soaked in tap water for
strength. Nevertheless, there was very little alumina pre- three days as presented in Figure 3. The sopped sheets
sent (2.65%). Minimal direct input from alumina increases were put into a paper pulping machine, where they were
Portland cement’s strength. Low iron oxide concentration ground to create a slurry of paper pulp. Research that was
(1.74%), which likewise has no impact on cement but aids similar to this one created paper pulp by pounding mate-
it and gives it the gray color, functions as a flux to help rials that had been soaked in water for 2 weeks. This
cement. Other insignificant components like TiO2, MnO2, ensured smooth grinding and decreased the pulverizing
and P2O3 were less than 1% and had no impact on the time. Having been moistened, the wet paper was added to
strength or other characteristics of cement. the grinding mill [34].

0.62% 0.51%
0.67% 0.01 Silicon dioxide
0.01 12.52% Aluminium oxide

0.01% Calcium oxide

0.30%
29.20% Iron oxide
0.86%
Magnesium oxide
1.78%
Sodium oxide
Potassium oxide
Manganese(II) oxide
Phosphorus pentoxide
2.65% Titanium Dioxide
Water
LOI

50.88% Sulfur trioxide

Figure 2: Chemical composition of paper pulp ash [33].

4  Jawad Ahmad et al.

3 Fresh properties 30.5% and that with 15% silica fume (SF) replacement
and 15% metakaolin substitute, it is 37 and 36.37%, respec-
tively. The water consumption is assumed to grow as the
3.1 Consistency
replacement level of admixtures rises [37]. It can be con-
cluded that the cementitious materials increased the
To accomplish the chemical reaction between water and
normal consistency due to their porous nature.
cement, a specific minimum amount of water must be
added to the cement. A chemical process would not be
completed with less water than this amount, reducing
strength, while a chemical reaction with more water 3.2 Setting time
could raise the water–cement ratio, increasing strength.
In order to get optimum strength while employing cement The most crucial factor to consider is the setting time
in construction, the exact proportion of water to cement since if the paste is set quickly, it would be difficult to
must be understood. A test of blended cement pastes’ apply it to concrete. There are several variables that affect
usual consistency was conducted in order to get the correct how quickly pastes are set, including physical and che-
quantity of water. Figure 4 depicts the typical consistency mical characteristics. According to a study [38], the paste’s
of blended pastes incorporating wastepaper ashes. setting time was accelerated by the greater CaO compo-
The consistency of the control pastes or the paste nent. According to a research [39], geopolymer with a high
without wastepaper ash was normal at 29%. In compar- CaO concentration undergoes polymerization and hydra-
ison to the control paste, all the pastes containing was- tion processes, increasing strength and speeding up the
tepaper ash displayed normal consistency. The findings paste’s setting time. Figure 5 provides the setting times for
fell within this typical range of normal consistency of the blended paste including wastepaper ash.
cement paste between 26 and 33%, and the normal con- The typical impact of the paper ash was found to
sistency for blended pastes displays a minor rise as the have prolonged the set periods of blended cement paste.
percentage replacement of paper ash increases in com- C3A reacts with both water and gypsum, which causes the
parison to the control paste. The wastepaper pulp ash- cement to set. However, paper ash contains less C3A than
containing paste requires more water compared to the OPC, hence it sets cement more slowly. Therefore, the
control paste or paste without paper pulp ash due to its blended cement paste’s setting time was delayed by the
porosity [29]. The pastes with replacement up to 10% reduced C3A content. The Ethiopian standard stipulates
showed uniformity inside this region, but the results after that cement must initially set in no less than 45 min and
10% substitution revealed greater levels of consistency must finish setting in no more than 10 h. The findings for the
[35]. Additionally, the research found that when fly ash setting time showed that adding wastepaper ash to the
(FA) proportion rises from 0 to 20%, the usual consis- mixture delayed the setting, but this delay was within
tency rises by roughly 40% [36]. Similar to this, research the parameters provided by the Ethiopian standard [35].
found that the typical consistency of cement (OPC) is However, research finds that in comparison to control

40 400
15%
20%

350
10%
5%

35
15%

0%

300
10%

15%

Time (Minutes)
Consistency (%)

301.2
10%

30
5%

5%
0%

0%

250
20%

25
15%
10%

200
5%
0%

20
150

15 100
Kejela et al. Mitikie et al. Inial Seng Time Final Seng Time

Figure 4: Normal consistency [29,35]. Figure 5: Setting time [35].

 Sustainable concrete  5

concrete, concrete mixture reduces both the start and final A number of things might have a negative impact on
setting durations [29]. There might be three causes for this. how workable paper pulp concrete is. The major causes of
First, compared to cement, wastepaper pulp ash absorbed the decreased workability of concrete would be the sub-
more water. The hydration process could be sped up by the stitution of paper pulp, paper pulp physical characteris-
high-water absorption of pulp ash particles. As a result, tics, and paper pulp carbon content. As the paper pulp
the period of time required to establish was shortened. percentage rises to roughly 20%, the decrease in water
Second, by increasing the paper pulp ash substitute, the requirement becomes greater [40]. The flow test revealed
mixture’s gypsum content (which is present in the cement) that the flowability of the cement mortars decreased when
decreased. As a result, quick setup times might happen. ash was substituted for 10–30% of the cement [44]. Woody
Third, the significantly increased CaO level in paper pulp ash’s physical properties, such as its irregular particle
ash may further affect the hydration process. shape and higher surface area, make it detrimental to con-
crete’s flowability. Since a larger surface area required
more cement paste for flowability, little workable concrete
was generated. Concrete is becoming less workable as a
consequence of increased internal friction between the
3.3 Slump
materials due to uneven shape and larger surface areas.
In comparison, other research suggests that adding filler
Slump as a function of paper pulp ash is displayed in
materials to small gaps might contribute to a rise in the
Figure 6. The slump decreased when more paper pulp
slump [45,46]. As a consequence of the reduced voids,
content was added. The pulp showed a strong capacity for
there is more cement paste accessible for rheological prop-
absorbing water. As a result, additional water was needed
erties [47]. Paper pulp ash helps to increase the flow of
to obtain a similar slump and there was a greater proportion
concrete by filling up small gaps; however, since it is
of paper pulp in the combination [40]. Similar research
permeable, the flow value of concrete is reduced.
found that adding ash from paper pulp reduced slump
[41]. Research also found that the slump flow decreased
when wheat straw and millet husk ash concentrations
increased. With these behaviors, it may be concluded
4 Strength properties
that the geo-polymerization process caused considerable
amounts of water to be consumed at greater millet husk 4.1 Compressive strength (CS)
ash and wheat straw ash levels due to the microparticle
size of these materials. As a result, the composite has a Compressive strength as a function of paper pulp ash is
tendency to be thicker, which reduces flowability [42]. displayed in Figure 7 and Table 1. Typically, the addition

80

70
5%

5%
0%
0%

60
10%

10%

50
Slump (mm)

15%
15%

40
20%

20%

30
0%
5%

20
10%
15%

10
20%

0
Balwaik et al. Nigar et al. Ahmad et al.

Figure 6: Slump flow [40,41,43].

6  Jawad Ahmad et al.

45

5%
40

0%

10%
15%
35

Compressive Strength (MPa)

20%
5%

5%
10%

5%
10%
30

0%
0%

0%
25

10%
15%
15%

15%
20%
20

20%
20%
15

10

0
Balwaik et al. Seyyedalipour et al. Praharaj et al. Ahmad et al.

Figure 7: Compressive strength [40,43,48,49].

of wastepaper pulp increases the compressive strength by material at higher replacement levels of 20 and 30% of
up to 10%, and subsequent increases in wastepaper pulp the total binder weight, the CS of the 28 days mortar
progressively diminish the strengths [48]. A study also mix was discovered to be lower [50]. The feasibility of
concludes that when the paper pulp content is increased, employing wastepaper pulp ash as an alternative mate-
the compressive strength of wastepaper pulp-based con- rial utilized as a partial cement replacement in the pro-
crete rises until it reaches 10%, after which it steadily duction of concrete was investigated, and its impact on
declines [41]. The findings show that at 5% cement sub- the qualities of concrete was looked at. For 25 MPa con-
stitution with wastepaper sludge ash, the compressive crete, four mixes with varying percentages of waste-
strength increased, beyond that, it started to decline. paper pulp ash in lieu of OPC and paper pulp concrete
When concrete using 0% wastepaper sludge ash in lieu were created: 0, 5, 10, and 15%. When wastepaper pulp
of cement was tested, the maximum compressive strength ash was used instead of cement by 5%, the CS increased
was found to be 15% higher than that of the reference mix compared to the control mix (0%).
at 28 days [43]. It was discovered that the concrete mix with paper
Comparing the 28 days compressive strength of the ash replacements of 10 and 15% had lower compressive
control mix formed with regular Portland cement, an strength than the control mix (0%). This may suggest that
improvement of 5.6 and 1.2% was seen for 5 and 10% wastepaper pulp ash has the ability to replace up to 5% of
substitution. This is because paper ash contains more the weight of OPC. The high replacement of cement by
silica than cement does, which explains why. However, wastepaper pulp ash results in a decrease in cement,
it showed that the amount of cement substitution had a which in turn leads to a reduction in the hydration process,
significant impact on how much the strength had improved. which results in a loss in compressive strength with the
It was noticed that the compressive strength of the concretes rising substitution of wastepaper pulp ash [29]. Wastepaper
containing 15 and 20% wastepaper ash had decreased [35]. contains amorphous silica, which when combined with
The compression strength (CS) of cement mortar mixtures accessible lime (which forms when cement is hydrated)
including FA from biomass-fired power plants was studied. produces additional cementitious compounds such as cal-
Cement was replaced at levels of 10, 20, and 30% of the total cium silicate hydrates. The key factor contributing to the
weight of the binder with FA generated from wood waste. increase in strength is the calcium silicate hydrate, which
Mortar mixes with a 10% wood waste FA additive demon- strengthened the paste’s binding abilities and enhanced
strated higher CS at 28 days but lower flexural strength (FS) the microstructure. However, it showed that the amount
when compared to identical pure OPC mortar. When wood of cement substitution had a significant impact on how
waste FA was employed as a partial cement replacement much the strength had improved. It was noticed that the
 Sustainable concrete  7

Table 1: CS as a function of paper pulp ash

Ref. Substitution Substitution W/C Optimum Compression strength (MPa) CS at optimum % Remarks
range (%) dose (%)

[40] Cement in 0 0.5 5 14 days 28 days 14 days = 16.2 Compressive

concrete 5 22.04 31.63 strength increased
10 25.62 33.93
15 23.53 32.33 28 days = 7.27
20 18.85 25.43
16.72 21.62
[48] Cement in 0 — 5 28 days 28 days = 5.0 Compressive
concrete 5 40 strength increased
10 42
15 40
20 38
35
[41] Cement in 0 — 5 14 days 28 days 14 days = 12.88 Compressive
concrete 5 22.5 31.8 strength increased
10 25.4 33.63
15 23.13 32.53 28 days = 5.75
20 19.1 25.7
17.05 21.97
[51] Cement in 0 — 5 7 days 28 days 56 days 90 days 7 days = 2.85 Compressive
mortar 5 21 31.9 33.5 33.8 28 days = 2.82 strength decreased
10 20.4 31 33.4 33.1 56 days = 0.29
15 19.8 30.9 32.6 32.3 90 days = 2.07
20 18.7 27.6 31.3 30.9
16.5 26.2 29.5 30.3
[25] Cement in 88 — 80 28 days 28 days = 175.0 Compressive
composite 86 2 strength increased
84 2.5
82 3
80 3.5
75 5.5
70 3
65 3.2
3.8
[34] Cement in 95 — 70 28 days 28 days = 144.4 Compressive
composite 90 45 strength increased
85 125
80 55
75 135
70 90
65 110
60 75
100
[43] Cement in 0 0.45 5 7 days 28 days 7 days = 10.00 Compressive
concrete 5 21.48 28.07 strength increased
10 23.62 32.34
15 20.15 26.29 28 days = 15.21
20 17.92 24.74
15.14 22.14
[20] Cement in 0 0.4 5 28 days 28 days = 18.55 Compressive
concrete 2.50 20.1 strength increased
5.00 16.37
7.50 24.12
10 23.53
32.36
8  Jawad Ahmad et al.

0%
120.00%

90.00%

60.00%

20% 5%
30.00%

7 - Days
0.00%
28-Days
56-Days
90-Days
CON(28-Days)

15% 10%

Figure 8: Relative compressive strength [51].

compressive strength of the concretes containing 15 and resulting in phase separation of the continuous and scat-
20% wastepaper ash had decreased [35]. Additionally, it tered phases.
has been said that using cementitious materials at the Compressive strength as a function of different paper
proper dosage would enhance efficiency [47]. The greater pulp concentrations and curing durations is shown in
the cementitious material dosage, the lower the strength Figure 8. After a period of 28 days, the standard strength
qualities of the concrete owing to the dilution effect, which was taken as a benchmark (control or reference concrete
causes alkali–silica reactions. Furthermore, when the filler compressive strength). The blend with the optimal
content of the composite grows, the matrix gets thicker, amount of paper pulp, which was determined to be
which strengthens the composite and allows it to bear 5%, served as a reference standard against which other
stress more effectively. However, at greater concentra- mixtures containing varied levels of paper pulp were
tions, the filler is unable to properly mix with the matrix, evaluated.

4
5%

3.5
10%
0%

3
Tensile Strength (MPa)

15%
5%

5%
10%
0%

20%

10%
0%

2.5
5%
0%

10%

15%
15%

15%
20%

20%

2
20%

1.5

0.5

0
Ahmad et al. Nigar et al. Praharaj et al. Balwaik et al.

Figure 9: Tensile strength [40,41,43,49].

 Sustainable concrete  9

When paper pulp is used in lieu of cement at a repla- 4.2 Tensile strength
cement rate of 5%, the compressive strength is reduced
by 36% in comparison to the reference strength (28 days Tensile strength as a function of paper pulp ash is dis-
control strength) after 7 days but is reduced by just 3% played in Figure 9 and Table 2. In general, the tensile strength
after 28 days. However, after 56 and 90 days of curing, the increased up to 10% in addition to wastepaper pulp and a
compressive strength is 4% higher than the standard further rise in wastepaper pulp progressively diminishes the
strength with only 5% of the paper pulp ash being strength [48]. In comparison to the reference mix, the mix-
replaced. Additionally, it can also be observed that at ture with a 10% addition of wastepaper had a greater split-
90 days of curing, the compressive strength of concrete ting tensile strength, which decreased as the wastepaper
is almost equal to the reference concrete. This is due to concentration further increased. In comparison to the con-
the fact that the pozzolanic process proceeds at a much trol combination, the splitting tensile strength generally
slower pace than the cement hydration process [52,53]. improved for concrete mixes including 5 and 10% waste-
There is a possibility that pozzolanic materials have a paper but decreased with a 15% addition of wastepaper
reduced early-age strength. Similar studies came to the [55]. Similar research works reported that adding wheat
same result that the addition of pozzolanic compounds to straw ash increased the material’s tensile strength [56].
concrete enhanced the strength of the concrete as it aged The tensile strength of concrete mixes including saw-
(beyond 28 days) [54]. dust ash as a partial replacement for cement was

Table 2: Tensile strength as a function of paper pulp ash

Ref. Substitution Substitution W/C Optimum % Tensile strength (MPa) Tensile strength at Remarks
range (%) optimum %

[40] Cement in 0 0.5 5 28 days 28 days = 5.83 Tensile strength

concrete 5 2.74 increased
10 2.9
15 2.76
20 2.33
2.2
[48] Cement in 0 — 5 28 days 28 days = 12.12 Tensile strength
concrete 5 3.3 increased
10 3.7
15 3.5
20 3
2.8
[41] Cement in 0 — 5 28 days 28 days = 4.56 Tensile strength
concrete 5 2.85 increased
10 2.98
15 2.89
20 2.43
2.26
[43] Cement in 0 0.45 5 7 days 28 days 7 days = 4.71 Tensile strength
concrete 5 2.122 2.546 28 days = 5.51 increased
10 2.225 2.688
15 2.157 2.51
20 2.051 2.334
1.768 2.122
[20] Cement in 0 0.4 5 28 days 28 days = 9.72 Tensile strength
concrete 2.50 2.88 decreased
5.00 2.6
7.50 3.16
10 3.07
3.66
10  Jawad Ahmad et al.

16

14

5%
5%
10%
12

10%
0%
0%
Flexural Strength (MPa)

15%
15%
10

20%
20%
8

5%
6

10%
0%
4
10%

15%
5%
7.5%
0%
2.5%

20%
2

0
Azar et al. Balwaik et al. Seyyedalipour et al. Nigar et al.

Figure 10: Flexural strength [20,40,41,48].

investigated at 7 and 28 days. A loss in tensile strength was reduced. The process of compaction becomes more
with an increase in saw dust ash percentage, but it challenging at higher doses (20% of wheat straw ash),
was not as clear as a drop in compressive strength. although it is still achievable but for the lack of workability
After 7 days, it was seen that the difference in strength that results in more holes and less structural load cap-
between the blended cement concrete and control mix- ability [59]. The continuous and scattered phases separate
tures increased. After 28 days, blended cement concrete as the filler’s ability to completely mix with the matrix is
mixes with replacement percentages of up to 25% had reduced at greater concentrations. As a consequence, com-
tensile capacity of up to 90% of the control mixtures’ posite materials that include more than 40% paper pulp
strength [57]. lose some of their durability [49].
A researcher examined the impact of hardwood ash
on the tensile capacity of concrete when it was used as a
cement replacement in the production of concrete. 5, 8, 4.3 Flexural strength (FS)
and 12% substitution rate of wooden ash were used. The
same reference concrete was again poured, but without Flexural strength (FS) as a function of paper pulp ash is
any wood ash, for comparison. The tensile strength of the displayed in Figure 10 and Table 3. In general, the was-
constructed concrete samples was evaluated after 3, 7, 28, tepaper pulp may boost FS by up to 10%, and subsequent
91, 182, and 365 days. From the study of the laboratory increases in wastepaper pulp progressively diminish the
data, it was determined that the tensile capacity of the strengths [48]. The research found that adding 10 and
control concrete was 3.8 MPa at 28 days and 4.3 MPa 15% more wastepaper to concrete decreased its FS, how-
after 365 days. The tensile capacity of concrete mixes ever adding 5% more wastepaper to concrete increased
including wood ash ranged from 3.6–4.0 MPa at 28 days its FS compared to the control combination [60]. The
to 4.3–5.3 MPa at 365 days. The concrete with wood ash of result showed that high paper pulp levels in concrete
8% was also found to have the best tensile strength devel- mixes reduced FS. The FS of the concrete mixture dropped
opment behavior for concrete ages of more than 28 days up as the paper pulp percentage increased. The paper pulp
to 365 days, with a magnitude of tensile capacity that con- content in the concrete mixture had a major effect on the
sistently beat that of other test mixes [58]. The greatest mechanical characteristics of the mixture. The results
value was discovered at a dosage of 10% wheat straw showed that, usually, the flexural strength increased with
ash when comparing the tensile strength of wheat straw additions of the wastepaper pulp of 5 and 10%, and that a
ash with that of the reference sample. However, when the further rise in wastepaper pulp progressively decreased the
dosage was raised by more than 10%, the tensile strength strength [48].
 Sustainable concrete  11

Table 3: Flexural strength as a function of paper pulp ash

Ref. Substitution Substitution W/C Optimum % Flexure Flexural strength at Remarks

range (%) strength (MPa) optimum %

[40] Cement in 0 0.5 5 28 days 28 days = 15.20 Flexural strength

concrete 5 12.3 increased
10 14.17
15 12.75
20 10.75
9.19
[48] Cement in 0 — 10 28 days 28 days = 40 Flexural strength
concrete 5 5 increased
10 7
15 6
20 4
3
[41] Cement in 0 — 5 28 days 28 days = 15.04 Flexural strength
concrete 5 12.43 increased
10 14.3
15 12.74
20 10.92
9.23
[51] Cement in mortar 0 — 5 28 days 28 days = 27.27 Flexural strength
5 0.22 increased
10 0.28
15 0.26
20 0.19
0.18
[20] Cement in 0 0.4 5 28 days 28 days = 9.57 Flexural strength
concrete 2.50 3.55 decreased
5.00 3.2
7.50 3.89
10 3.84
4.5

The adhesion connection between water molecules was responsible for the reduction in the strength qualities
and the structure of the paper may be used to explain of the concrete as a result of the increased dosage of cemen-
these findings. Adhesion, which may be advantageous titious materials. In addition to this, raising the filler per-
to water, is the attraction of one molecule to another centage in a composite material causes the matrix to grow
molecule of a different particle type. Paper ash has denser over time, which in turn makes the composite mate-
more silica than cement. When the accessible lime and rial more robust and better able to resist the effects of stress.
crystalline silica in wastepaper combine to generate cement, However, when the filler is present in a larger concentra-
new cementitious compounds like calcium silicate hydrates tion, it is no longer able to combine completely with the
are produced. The key factor contributing to the increase in matrix, which results in the phase separation of the contin-
strength is the calcium silicate hydrate, which strengthened uous phase and the scattered phase. In light of the findings
the paste’s binding abilities and enhanced the micro- presented above, the review suggests using 10% ash from
structure [61–64]. However, it showed that the amount the paper pulp in concrete without causing any harmful
of cement substitution had a significant impact on how effects on the strength attributes of the concrete.
much the strength had improved. It was noticed that the
compressive strength of the concretes containing 15
and 20% wastepaper ash had decreased [35]. It has also
4.4 Impact strength
been noted that the right optimal dosage of cementitious
materials is critical for improved performance [47,65–67].
The capacity of concrete to endure repeated impacts and
The dilution effect, which causes alkali–silica reactions,
absorb energy without suffering damage in the form of
12  Jawad Ahmad et al.

cracking or spalling is termed impact resistance. The this, the review finds that adding paper pulp increases
impact resistance as a function of paper pulp ash is dis- impact resistance. This is due to the paper pulp’s dual
played in Figure 11. roles as a filler and a strengthening fiber, which strengthens
The addition of paper pulp results in a increased in the matrix phase and enhances all structural qualities,
the impact value. This is due to the fact that the paper especially impact strength.
pulp serves both as a filler and a reinforcing fiber. Studies
reported that fiber improved concrete performance due to
bridging effects [68,69]. This provides the matrix phase
with a strengthening effect, which in turn improves all 5 Cost benefits
of the mechanical characteristics, including the impact
strength. Thus, when a force is applied, composite mate- Figure 12 shows the cost reduction of the mix with partial
rials do not readily fracture. The filler particles, however, substitution of wastepaper with respect to the reference
become concentrated in one area as the filler concentra- mix. The optimal proportion of wastepaper was selected
tion rises and are unable to properly mix with the matrix for comparison. Since wastepaper pulp ash is a bypro-
phase. This agglomeration causes phase separation, duct, the cost is minimal. The cost comparison shows that
which progressively degrades the mechanical character- adding wastepaper pulp ash lowers the price of concrete.
istics above a composition of 40%. As long as the Thus, it has been determined that using wastepaper in
amount of paper pulp is raised, this degradation will concrete may, to some degree, reduce disposal costs and
continue [49]. According to research, activated FA con- generate greener concrete for building. Finally, it was dis-
crete has superior impact resistance than other mixtures covered that, when compared to control concrete, the con-
at replacement levels of 10 and 15%. Due to the pozzo- crete mix with 5% partial replacement of wastepaper pulp
lanic effect, higher impact resistance obtained in con- ash for cement lowers the cost of concrete by 2.34% while
crete with 10 and 15% FA replacement may be related to maintaining concrete properties like consistency, work-
decreased permeability [70]. The concrete mixes’ fine ability, compressive strength, absorption, and resistance
aggregates were replaced in part by 0, 20, 40, and to 2% sulfuric acid solution [29]. The research was con-
60% rubber by volume, while the cement was substi- ducted on the economics of bacterial SF concrete [73].
tuted with 0, 5, and 10% SF by mass. Findings show The benefit/cost ratio of SF concrete decreased as the
that the impact energy of rubberized concrete was 2.39 SF amount increased. In contrast to the reference blend,
times more than that of regular concrete and that its SF concrete with 10% SF displayed the greatest advantage
ability to absorb energy was 9.46% greater. Although SF in terms of property improvement and the highest benefit/
was added, the impact energy increased by 3.06 times, but cost ratio. According to one research, using pozzolanic
the energy absorption capacity remained relatively the elements in concrete may increase concrete durability,
same [71]. According to research, SF was added to natural setting time, and cause fewer energy releases, and costs
pozzolan-based cement concrete to make up for the linked with structural preservation and restoration
early-life compressive strength drop [72]. In spite of throughout the structure’s planned service life. Furthermore,

85

1480 Total Cost Cost Reducon 8

80 1460 7
Impact Strength (MPa)

1440
6
75 1420
Cost Reducon (%)

5
Total Cost (BIrr)

1400
4
70 1380
3
1360
65 2
1340

1320 1
60
1300 0
10 20 30 40 50
0 5 10 15
Paper pulp (%) Paper Pulp Ash (%)

Figure 11: Impact strength [49]. Figure 12: Cost benefits of paper pulp in concrete [29].
 Sustainable concrete  13

even at the greatest distance FA can be delivered for cement in construction. The first advantage is that it helps
concrete, including FA to provide ecological and finan- maintain the quality of the surrounding environment, and
cial advantages over concrete without the presence of the second is that it may be utilized in the manufacturing
FA [74]. of concrete as an alternative to cement. According to the
findings of the research, there are two positive aspects
associated with using recycled paper in place of cement.
6 Environmental benefits The first advantage is that it helps to preserve the quality of
the environment, and the second is that it may be substi-
Due to the significant consumption of resources by never tuted for cement in the production of concrete [29]. In
ending building projects, environmental consequences addition, the manufacture of cement is a contributor to
from the cement and concrete industry have raised con- environmental degradation since it results in the release
cerns around the globe [75–78]. The removal of raw mate- of hazardous gases.
rials to the dismantling of a concrete structure is only a
few of the many steps in the process of building with
concrete that pose significant sustainability challenges
[79–82]. Recycling leftover concrete from construction 7 Conclusion
and demolition debris (waste), rerouting the life cycles
of essential components, and lowering the amount of This article provides overview of green construction ideas
solid trash disposed are all becoming more important that deal with making the most of resources that are often
as the world transitions to a more sustainable lifestyle wasted (paper pulp ash). The majority of the attention
[83]. Diverse waste types are becoming more often gen- was placed on how they influenced the qualities of the
erated in a range of quantities and standards. In order to construction material, the appropriate composition of the
preserve and safeguard human health in metropolitan mixture, and a discussion of the benefits and drawbacks
populations and to boost systematic productive capacity of the “green” addition (paper pulp ash). The focus of this
at all levels of waste disposal, it has become vital to use study is on concrete’s essential properties, which include
modern solid sustainability practices to build successful consistency, setting time, flowability, compressive, flexural,
strategies for collection, transportation, and processing tensile, and impact strengths. In addition, the benefits of
technologies [20]. employing paper pulp ash as construction materials are
The incineration of discarded paper affects the sur- examined from both an economic and ecological stand-
rounding environment since it results in the emission of point. The comprehensive findings are provided below.
air pollutants into the atmosphere. When burned, printed • The normal consistency of concrete raised slightly with
paper releases a much greater quantity of air pollutants the incorporation of paper pulp ash due to the porous
than unprinted paper does. This may be the result of the nature of paper pulp which required more water to
printing ink releasing additional pollutants into the air, obtain normal consistency.
such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides. In addition, • An increase in setting time was observed with the sub-
heavy elements including lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) stitution of paper pulp ash. It is due to the larger quan-
were discovered on the ash of burnt papers, which sug- tity of CaO present in paper pulp ash, which accelerated
gested that the ash may be combined with the soil. Heavy the setting of paste.
metals such as lead, and cadmium are examples of hazar- • The flowability of concrete declined with the incorpora-
dous heavy metals that may have an adverse impact on tion of paper pulp ash due to its strong capacity for
human health. They have a negative impact on the central absorbing water. Therefore, additional water was needed
and peripheral neurological systems, as well as the kid- to obtain a similar slump.
neys, and they contribute to the inhibition of production • The strength properties of concrete such as compres-
of hemoglobin. Pb also has an impact on the kidneys. Cd sive, flexural, tensile, and impact strengths increased
has a deleterious effect on several essential enzymes and with the incorporation of paper pulp ash. The increase
has also been linked to osteocalcin, a painful bone condi- in strength properties is mainly due to micro-filling voids of
tion, and found to cause harm to the kidneys. Cadmium paper pulp ash. Furthermore, the optimum amount is valu-
pneumonitis is caused by the inhalation of cadmium oxide able as the greater dose negatively impacts the strength
dust and fumes, and its symptoms include pulmonary properties due to a lack of flowability. Therefore, the review
necrosis of the pulmonary epithelium. In addition, two recommends to a used optimum dose of paper pulp ash.
more advantages come with using recycled paper for The typical optimum dose of paper pulp varies from 5 to
14  Jawad Ahmad et al.

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conflict of interest.
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