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EM Theory - Lect - I

The document discusses electromagnetic theory and provides background on key concepts like vector and scalar fields, gradient, divergence, and curl. It explains that vector quantities in electromagnetic theory vary with position and time and are described by vector fields, while scalar quantities are described by scalar fields. Maxwell's equations are also mentioned.

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Mahir Mittal
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
8 views

EM Theory - Lect - I

The document discusses electromagnetic theory and provides background on key concepts like vector and scalar fields, gradient, divergence, and curl. It explains that vector quantities in electromagnetic theory vary with position and time and are described by vector fields, while scalar quantities are described by scalar fields. Maxwell's equations are also mentioned.

Uploaded by

Mahir Mittal
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Lecture -1

Unit –III Electro-Magnetic Theory

Basic idea of gradient, divergence and curl,


line, surface and volume integrals, Gauss’s
divergence and Stoke’s curl theorems,
continuity equation for charge and current,
Ampere’s law and its modification, concept of
displacement current density, Maxwell’s
equations.
What is Electromagnetics?
 Electromagnetic is the study of Charges:
(i) at rest (ii) in motion
 The subject of electromagnetic may be divided into 3
branches:
 Electrostatics: charges are at rest (no time-variation)
 Magnetostatics: charges are in steady-motion (no
time-variation)
 Electrodynamics: charges are in time-varying motion
(give rise to waves that propagate and carry energy
and information)
Historical Background
 The phenomenon of electricity and magnetism were
studied independently.

 But in 1820 Oersted noticed that


“ electric current could deflect a magnetic compass
needle”

 Ampere correctly postulated that “ All magnetic


phenomena are due to electric charge in motion.”

 In 1831 Faraday discovered that “ A moving magnet


generates an electric current.”
 Thus Electricity and magnetism were no longer
regarded as separate subject.
 The combined phenomena associated with electricity
and magnetism was termed as electromagnetism.
 James Maxwell put the various observations in
Electromagnetism into mathematical form.
 He also introduced some new ideas of his own and
gave a sound theoretical basis to electromagnetism.
 He also combined all the known facts about
electromagnetism into a set of four equations, now
known as
Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations.
Steps in Studying Electromagnetic

 Define basic quantities (e.g., Scalar and Vector-


field)

 Define the rules of operation (mathematics) of


these quantities (e.g., Vector Algebra, PDEs)

 Postulate fundamental laws


Vector field
 Vector quantities such as
 Electric field, magnetic induction, magnetic
intensity, electric displacement, electric current
density, etc are in general, functions of position
and time (x, t).
 The magnitude or direction (or both) of the
above vector quantities may change with
position and time.
 Hence are called Vector field.
 A vector field is represented at every point by a continuous
vector function.
 vector fields is a distribution of vectors in space and time.
 Graphically vector fields are represented by lines known as
field or flux lines. These lines are drawn in the field in such a
way that tangent at any point of the line gives the direction of a
vector field at that point.
 To express the magnitude of the vector field at any point first
draw an infinitesimal area perpendicular to the field line. The
number of field lines passing through this area element gives
the magnitude of the vector field.
 One more important thing here to note is that the lines
representing vector fields cannot cross, because if they cross
they would give non-unique field direction at the point of
interaction.
Scalar field
 Scalar quantities such as the electrostatic potential,
electric charge density, electromagnetic energy density
etc. which are, in general, functions of position and
time are called Scalar field.
 In the case of electrostatics, if we put a point charge at
any place, then electric potential around it will depend
on the position of the point. Since the electric
potential is a scalar quantity, the field around the
charge will be known as a scalar potential field. If all
such points at which potential is constant is joined by
a surface then such a surface is called equipotential
surface.
 Various laws of EM theory describe how vector and
scalar fields change with position and time.
 Laws are expressed mathematically in term of
derivative (i.e. ∂/∂x) and integral of fields with respect
to x and t.
 The derivatives with respect to space coordinate are
expressed in term of gradient, divergence and curl
operators.
Gradient of a scalar field
 The change of a scalar field with position is described
in terms of gradient operator.
 If V is a scalar field , its gradient is defined as
U

U+dU

Gradient (tangent):

∂U
U(x,y,z) = x ____ ∂U + z _____
+ y ____ ∂U
∂x ∂y ∂z
The del Operator

We say del is a vector operator that act upon


a function T not a vector that multiplies T.
Assignment on Gradient
1.

2.

3.

4.
Divergence of a vector field

Divergence of any vector is a scalar quantity.


Figure representing divergence

Figure 1 shows large positive divergence and figure 2 shows zero divergence
Examples

1.

Solution

2.
Curl of a vector field

The name curl is also well chosen,


for X A is a measure of how much
the vector A “curl around” the point in question.
Note -
1. It is evident that Curl of vector A is a rotational vector.

2. Its magnitude would be maximum circulation of vector A/unit area.

3. Its direction is normal direction of the area when the area is oriented
so as to make the circulation maximum.

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