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Topic 5: Evolution and Biodiversity

5.1 Evidence for evolution

Evolution in summary
● *Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species change over time
● Acquired characteristics: develop during the liferome of an individual (not evolution)
● Heritable characteristics: passed from parents to offspring (evolution)
● Mechanism of evolution: natural selection
Evidence from fossils
● *the fossil record provides evidence for evolution
● Evidence 1: sequence of fossils match how they would expect to evolve (ex: bacteria/
simple algae → fungi/worms → land vertebrates)
● Evidence 2: sequence fits with ecology of the groups (ex: plants → animals)
● Evidence 3: many sequences are known which link existing ancestors (ex: horses,
zebras in the genus of equus → link to rhinoceros)
Evidence from selective breeding
● *Selective breeding of domesticated animals shows that artificial selection can
cause evolution
● Artificial selection: repeatedly selecting for and breeding the individuals most suited to
human use. Clear because domesticated beads have not always existed in their current
form. - modern breeds of livestock and wild species that they resemble are huge
● Dogs come from wolves
Evidence from homologous structures
● *evolution of homologous structures by adaptive radiation explains similarities in
structure when there are differences in functions
● Analogous structures: appear similar but when studied closely, the structures are very
different (ex: whale and fish tail fins)
● This is because different origin but became similar as they perform similar function
(convergent evolution)
● Homologous structures: may look superficially different and perform different function
but which have unity of type (forelimps of humans vs mole/horse → same bone in same
relative positions)
● This is because they have same origin, from pentadactyl or fivedigit lumb ancestor and
they have become different due to different functions (adaptive radiation)
● More homologous structure: rudimentary organs - reduced structures that serve no
function (ex: appendix of humans) → may not have function anymore so lost
Pentadactyl limbs - mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles
● Single bone in proximal: humerus (forelimb) vs femur (hindlimb)
● Two bones in distal: radius/ulna (forelimb) and tibia/fibula (hindlimb)
● Wrist/Ankle: carpals (forelimb) and tarsals (hindlimb)
● Five digits: metacarpals/ phalanges (forelimb) and metatarsals/ phalanges (hindlimb)
● Amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals all have pendadactyl limbs for different functions
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Speciation
● *Population of a species can gradually diverge into seperate species by evolution
● Two populations separate → they do not interbreed → natural selection acts different on
the two populations → evolve in different ways/ characteristics will diverge (speciation)
● If populations merge and cannot interbreed → they have evolved into separate species
● Usually when migrating to an island → explains endemic species (ex: lava lizards on
Galapagos islands)
Evidence from patterns of variation
● *Continuous variation across the geographical range of related populations
matches the concept of gradual divergence
● If populations gradually diverge → expert stages of divergence
● Problem for biologists that name and classify living organisms → species gradually
diverge and no sudden switch – decision between lumping two populations in one
species or being two separate species
● Shows that species not distinct type and not unchanging
Industrial Melanism
● *Development of melanistic insects in polluted areas
● Melanistic: dark varieties of typically light-coloured insects (the peppered moth)
● Moths fly at night to find mate/reproduce → during day they roost on trees →
birds/animals predate moths in daylight
● In unpolluted areas (pale-coloured lichens) so well camouflaged but sulphur dioxide
pollution kills lichen and soot blackens tree → melanic moths camouflage in poluted
areas
5.2 Natural Selection
Variation
● *Natural selection can only occur if there is variation amongst members of the
same species
● Typical populations vary in many respects - example: humans vary in height, skin colour
● If individuals were identical, there would be no way of some being favoured
Sources of variation
● *Mutation, meiosis and sexual reproduction cause variation between individuals in
a species
● Cause 1: Mutation is origin; new alleles are produced which enlarge gene pool
● Cause 2: meiosis produces new combinations of alleles by breaking up existic dipload
cell → crossing over/ independent orientation of bivalents
● Cause 3: sexual reproduction involves fusion of male/female gamete → different parents
and offspring have combination of alleles from 2 individuals
Adaptation
● *Adaptation are characteristics that make an individual suited to its environment
and way of life - close relationship between structure and function
● Adaptation: characteristics that make an individual suited to its environment or way of
life (ex: water storage in the stem of cactus because of infrequent rainfall in desert)
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● Adaptation implies that characteristics develop over time and thus species evolve →
developed by natural selection
Overproduction of offspring
● *Species tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support
● Trend that living organisms produce more offsprinf than environment supports → lead to
struggle for existence within a population + competition resources
● Example: coconut palm produces 20 - 60 coconuts per year
Differential survival and reproduction
● *Individuals that are better adapted tend to survive and produce more offspring
while the less well adapted tend to die or produce fewer offspring
● In struggle for existence → best adapted individuals → survive/produce many offspring
while well-adapted die and fail to reproduce (natural selection)
● Ex: giraffe with longer neck can reach leaves and survive food shortage in dry season
Inheritence
● *Individuals that reproduce pass on characteristics to their offspring
● Variation between individuals can be passed onto offspring (heritable)
● Acquired during lifetime of an individual are not inherited
Progressive change
● *Natural selection increases the frequency of characteristics that make an
individual better adapted and decreases the frequency of other characteristics
leading to changes within species
● Better adapted survive and reproduce and pass on characterisitcs to offspring →
increase proportion of individuals with characteristics to make them well adapted → over
generations characteristics gradually change (evolution by natural selection)
Galapagos finches
● *changes in beaks of finches on daphne major
● Small birds of finches - 14 species in all (sizes and shapes of beak varied, and diet)
● Beak characteristics closely related with diet
● On Daphne major; small ground finches almost absent - medium beak can feed on large
and small seeds – in absent of competition from small seedeater G.Fortis is smaller in
beak size → drought caused shortge of small seeds and hard big seeds were available -
most small beaks died
● Variation in shape/size caused by environment and genes
Natural selection and antibody resistance
● After antibiotics introduced → bacteria showing resistance → spread to more species of
pathogenic bacteria → proportion of infections caused by resistance strain increase
● Rapid evolution due to some causes: widespread use, bacteria reproduce fast,
population are huge so more chance for mutation, bacteria pass genes (plasmids)

5.3 Classification of biodiversity

International cooperation
● *Cooperation and collaboration between groups of scientists; scientists use binomial
system to identify a species rather than the many different local names
● Local names are important for culture of an era - scientif name are needed worldwide
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The development of the binomial system

● *The binomial system of names for species is universal among biologists and has
been agreed and developed at a series of congresses
● International Zoological Congress (paris - 1889): internationally accepted rules for
naming and classifying animal species
The binomial system
● *When species are discovered they are given scientific names using binomial
system
● System is called binomial nomenclature - 2 words - genus name and species name
● genus is a group of species that share certain characteristics
● Rules: Genus (uppercase) - Species (lower) // italics // once used abbreviated with initial
+ species name // earliest published name 1753 (plants) - 1758 (animals)
The hierarchy of taxa
● *Taxonomist classify species using hierarchy of taxa
● Taxon: group of something - plural is taxa → species classified in taxa
● Every species is classified into a genus → grouped in families → orders → classes →
kingdom or domain
The three domains
● *all organisms are classified in three domains
● Traditional classification based on cell type: prokaryotes vs eukaryotes
● However this is inappropriate, prokaryote distinct (when base sequence of RNA was
determined): Eubacteria and Archae
● Three major groups: Eubacteria, Archae and Eukatyota

● Archaens: broad range of habitat - ocean surface, oil deposits - extreme temperature
water
● The methanogens are obligate anaerobes that give methane as waste product (eg in
intestines of cattle and guts of termites)
Eukaryote classification
● Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
● Four kingdoms of eukaryotes: plants, animals, fungi, protoctista
Example classification of one animal species and one plant species
Grey wolf Date palm

kingdom Animalia plantae

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phylum chordata angiospermophyta

class mammalia monocotyledoneae

order carnivora palmales

family Canidae arecaceae

genus canis phoenix

species lupus dactylifera

Natural Classification
● *In a natural classification, the genus and accompanying higher taxa consist of all
the species that have evolved from one common ancestral species
● Classify species in a way that follows how they evolved - all members of a genus or
higher taxon should have common ancestors (natural classification) - share traits
● Unnatural classification is one where insects, birds and bats grouped bcause they fly
→ flights evolved different and dont have common ancestor
● Natural classification can be problematic cause not always clear which groups of
species share common ancestors → convergent evolution can make distant organics
appear similar and adaptive radiation can make close related appear different
Reviewing classification
● *Taxonomists sometimes reclassify groups of species when new evidence shows
that a previous taxon contains that have evolved from different ancestral species
● New evidence shows that members of a group do not share a common ancestor →
group split into two or more taxa or taxa united when found to be closely related
● Controversy for humansif great apes can be included in hominidae family or separate
Pongidae → chimpanzee and gorilla closely related to humans than orangutan
Advantages of natural classification
● *Natural classification help in identifying of species and allow the prediction of
characteristics shared by species within a group
● Identification is easier: first can be identified in kingdom and then down to species level
● All members of a group in natural classification have evolved from a common ancestral
species - similar characteristics → prediction of characteristics of species within a group
(example: chemical of a useful drug found in plant of a genus , likely to be found in
another in the same genus)
Plants
● The different types of plants are put into phyla
● Bryophyta (mosses), filicinophyta (ferns), coniferophyta (conifers), angiospermophyta
(flowering plants)
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Animal Phyla
● 30 phyla divisions - 6 are shown
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Vertebrates
● Most species of chordate belong to one of 5 major classes
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5.4 Cladistics
Clades
● *A clade is a group of organiusms that have evolved from a common ancestor
● Species evolve and split to form new species → large group can be derived from a
common ancestor → can be identified by shared characteristics
● Clades include all organisms alive today - common ancestral species and species
evolved that became extinct
Identifying members of a clade
● *Evidence for which species are part of a clade can be obtained from the base
sequences of a gene or the corresponding amino acid sequence of a protein
● Evidence comes from base sequnece of a gene / amino acid sequence
● Recent common ancestros may have few differences in base or amino acids, wheras
diverged species from common ancestor millions of years ago may have few differences
Molecular clocks
● Sequence differences accumulate gradually so there is a positive correlation
between the number of differences between two species and the time since they
diverges from a common ancestor
● Differences in base sequence of DNA/ amino acids due to mutations (accumulate over
time) → evidence of constant rate, thus no. of differences show how long ago split
Analogous and homologous traits
● *Traits can be analogous or homologous
● Homologous structures are similar w of similar ancestry and analogous structures are
similar because of convergent evolution
Cladograms
● *Cladograms are three diagrams that show the most probable sequence of
divergence in clades
● A cladogram is a tree diagram based on similarities and differences between the species
in a clade - based on DNA/Amino acid sequence
● Computer programs show how species could have evolved with smallest no of changes
in sequences (parsimony) → sequence of divergence most probable
● Branching points are called nodes - ancestral species split to form two or more species
Primate Cladogram
● *Cladograms including humans and other primates
● Primates are an order of mammals that have adaptations for climbing trees
● Bonobos and chimpanzee most closely related to humans
Cladograms and reclassification
● *Evidence from cladistics has shown that classification of some groups based on
strutucure did not correspond with the evolutionary origins of a grup of species
● Construction of cladograms based on DNA/amino acid only became possible 20th cent
● The construction of cladograms and identification of clades is known as cladistics
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