Subject Name: Control systems

Subject Code: EC-4005

Semester: 4th
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Unit 1
Syllabus:
Introduction to Control system
Terminology and classification of control system, examples of control system, Laplace Transform and its
application, mathematical modeling of mechanical and electrical systems, differential equations, transfer
function, block diagram representation and reduction, signal flow graph techniques.
Feedback characteristics of control systems
Open loop and closed loop systems, effect of feedback on control system and on external disturbances,
linearization effect of feedback, regenerative feedback.

1.1 Introduction to Control Systems:

A Control System is a combination of elements, arranged in a planned manner wherein each element
causes an effect to produce a desired output. This cause and effect relationship is governed by a
mathematical relation. If this relation is linear, control system is called linear control system.
Control systems are systems that are used to maintain a desired result or value. For example, driving a car
along a road involves the brain of the driver as a controller comparing the actual position of the car on the
road with the desired position and making adjustments to correct any error between the desired and
actual position.
A control system consisting of interconnected components is designed to achieve a desired purpose. To
understand the purpose of a control system, it is useful to examine examples of control systems through
the course of history. These early systems incorporated many of the same ideas of feedback that are in use
today. Modern control engineering practice includes the use of control design strategies for improving
manufacturing processes, the efficiency of energy use, advanced automobile control, including rapid
transit, among others.
System – An interconnection of elements and devices for a desired purpose.
Control System – An interconnection of components forming a system configuration that will provide a
desired response.
Process – The device, plant, or system under control. The input and output relationship represents the
cause-and-effect relationship of the process.

1.1.1 Classification of Control System:

(a) Open Loop Control System:
These are the systems in which the control action is independent of the output. In an Open Loop Control
System the output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison with the input. Faithfulness of an
Open Loop Control System depends on the accuracy of input calibration.

Input Output
Control
Set Value System Required
Value

Figure 1.1.1: An open-loop control system

Examples of Open Loop Control System are hand drier, automatic washing machine, electric lift, traffic
signal, cold drink bottling coffee server etc.
Advantages of Open Loop Control System are

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1) Simple in construction,
2) Economic in operation,
3) No stability problem.

Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System are

1) These are inaccurate,
2) Un reliable
3) Effect of parameter variation and internal disturbances are present in Open Loop Control System.

(b) Close Loop Control System:

Figure below shows the general form of a basic closed-loop system.
Output
Input + Error Correction
Action
-
Measuring
Element

Figure 1.1.2: Basic elements of a closed-loop control

In case of close loop control systems the output of system
the system depends upon input and previous output
itself, or we can say the control action depends upon output of the system. The control action is actuated
by an error signal, which is the difference between the input signal and the output signal. This process of
comparison between input and the output maintains the output at a desired level through the control
action.

The following are the functions of the constituent elements:

(i). Comparison element
This element compares the required value of the variable being controlled with the measured value of
what is being achieved and produces an error signal:
Error = reference value signal - measured actual value signal
Thus if the output is the required value then there is no error and so no signal is fed to initiate control. Only
when there is a difference between the required value and the actual values of the variable will there be
an error signal and so control action initiated.
(ii). Control law implementation element
The control law element determines what action to take when an error signal is received. The control law
used by the element may be just to supply a signal which switches on or off when there is an error, as in a
room thermostat, or perhaps a signal which is proportional to the size of the error. With a proportional
control law implementation, if the error is small a small control signal is produced and if the error is large a
large control signal is produced.
(iii). Correction element
The correction element or, as it is often called, the final control element, produces a change in the process
which aims to correct or change the controlled condition.
(iv). Process
The process is the system in which there is a variable that is being controlled, e.g. it might be a room in a
house with its temperature being controlled.
(v). Measurement element
The measurement element produces a signal related to the variable condition of the process that is being
controlled. For example, it might be a temperature sensor with suitable signal processing.

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Examples of the close loop control systems are:

1) Automatic Electric Iron,
2) RADAR tracking system,
3) DC speed control,
4) Water level indicator,
5) Auto pilot system.

Advantages of the close loop control systems are:

1) It is accurate and reliable,
2) Effect of parameter variation and internal disturbances is reduced,
3) High bandwidth,
4) Reduces effects of non linearities.

Disadvantages of close loop control systems are:

1) Complex and costly,
2) Instability margin increases i.e. if any open loop control system which is stable and when we feedback
the output, then the close loop control system becomes the unstable.

1.2 Comparison between Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems:
The differences between the Open loop control system and closed loop control system are as under in the
table:

S. No. Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Control Systems

01 Accuracy depends upon the calibration As the error signal is continuously measured,
of the input signal. these work more accurately.
02 Simple to construct. Complex
03 Cheap Costly
04 Operation affected due to non linearity The effects of non linearity present in its
of the elements. elements are adjusted.
05 No change in input with change in Change in output affects the input.
output.
06 Error correction is not possible. Possible
07 Small bandwidth Large bandwidth

1.3 Transfer Function of a Control Systems:

The transfer function of a control system is defined as the Laplace transform of the output signal to the
Laplace transform of the input signal with assuming all initial conditions to be zero.
The transfer function can also be expressed as the ratio of output quantity to the input quantity.
Suppose that we have a system as shown below:

Input or Excitation function R(s) Transfer Output or response C(s)

Function G(s)

Figure 1.3.1 An open loop control system

The term gain is used to relate the input and output of a system with gain G = output/input. When we are
working with inputs and outputs described as functions of s we define the transfer function G(s) as [output
C(s)]/input R(s)] when all initial conditions before we apply the input are zero:

�
Here transfer function =
�

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(a) Transfer function of open loop control system

Suppose that we have an open loop control system as shown in figure 1.3.1
Then the transfer function of this open loop control system is given by:
�
=
A transfer function can be represented as a block diagram (Figure) with X(s) the input, Y(s) the output and
the transfer function G(s) as the operator in the box that converts the input to the output. The block
represents a multiplication for the input. Thus, by using the Laplace transform of inputs and outputs.

(b) Transfer function of close loop control system

Suppose that we have a closed loop control system as shown in the figure 1.3.2
Input Output
+
G(s)
X(s) Y(s)
- Error

H(s)

Figure 1.3.2 A closed loop control system

For systems with a negative feedback loop we can have the situation shown in Figure where the output is
fed back via a system with a transfer function H(s) to subtract from the input to the system G(s). The
feedback system has an input of Y(s) and thus an output of H(s)Y(s). Thus the feedback signal is H(s)Y(s).
The error is the difference between the system input signal X(s) and the feedback signal and is thus:
= −
Overall transfer function of the closed loop system will be:

�
=
+

1.4 Laplace Transform:

Definition: The Laplace transform of the function x t is denoted by X s and given by
∞
X s = ∫ x t e−

This transform is an operator. It transforms a time domain function t into the frequency domain
function X s .
The Laplace operator id denoted by the script letterℒ.
ℒ{ } =
Inverse Laplace Transform: The Inverse Laplace transform of the function X s is denoted by x t and
given by
σ+jω
x t = ∫ X s e
πj σ−jω

Ex.1.1 Find the Laplace transform of the following functions

(a) x t =

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L[ x(t )]   x(t )e dt   e dt    
 
e  st
   (0  1) 
t  t 
 st  st 1  st 1 1
s s
e
t 0 t 0 s s
0 0

 L(1)  (Re(s))  0
1
s

(b) x(t )  e t u(t )

L[e u (t )]   e e dt   e ( s )t dt
 
t t  st

Define a new complex variable s'  s  

0 0

L[e u (t )]   e  s 't dt

t

We know that  e st dt 

0

Re( s)  0
1
s

  e  s 't dt 
0

Re( s' )  0
1
s'

  e (  s )t dt 
0

Re( s   )  0
s 
1
0

 L[e t u (t )]  Re( s   )  0 or Re( s)   Re( )

s 
1

 L[e t ] 
s 
1

(c) x(t )   (t )

L[ (t )]    (t )e  st dt


e  e t e  jt
0
 st
t 0 t 0

e t
(cos t  j sin t )
t 0

1

Some functions and their Laplace transforms

S. No Function f(t) Laplace Transform F(s)

1
1 1
s
1
2 T
s2
3
s
n !
4 t +

5 eat
s−a
6 sin
+

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7 cos
+
8 eat sin
−� +
9 e−at cos
+� +
!
10 t e−at +
+�

11 sin ℎ
−
12 cos ℎ
−

1.5 Properties of Laplace Transform:

The properties of the Lapla e Tra sfor are as u der…
1. Linearity Property:
Property ℒ is a linear transform;
Assume x(t )  a1 x1 (t )  a2 x2 (t ) ( a1 and a 2 are time independent)
And X1 (s)  L[ x1 (t )], X 2 (s)  L[ x2 (t )]
then X (s)  L[ x(t )]  a1 X1 (s)  a2 X 2 (s)

Assume X ( s)  L[ x(t )]
2. Laplace Transforms of Derivatives

 dx(t ) 
L   sX ( s)  x(0 )


 dt 
Then

 x( )d ,
3. Laplace Transform of an integral

y (t )  X ( s )  L[ x(t )]
t

Assume

  X ( s ) y (0  )
L   x( )d   
t

  
Then
s s

 x( )d
0
where y(0 ) 



4. Complex Frequency shift (s-shift) Theorem

Assume y(t )  x(t )e t

X (s)  L[ x(t )] Y (s)  L[ y(t )]

Then Y ( s)  X ( s   )

L[ x(t )]  L[ x(t )u (t )]  X ( s)
5. Delay Theorem
Assume
L[ x(t  t0 )u (t  t0 )]  e  st0 X ( s) (t0  0)
(t0  0) , it will not be a delay!)
Then
(If

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L[ x(t  t 0 )u (t  t 0 )]
Proof:

  x(t  t 0 )u (t  t 0 )e  st dt


  x(t  t 0 )u (t  t 0 )e dt   x(t  t 0 )u (t  t 0 )e  st dt
0

 st
t0

  x(t  t 0 )e dt   x(t  t 0 )e  s (t t0 )st0 dt

0 t0
 
 st

 x(t  t )e
t0 t0

e  st0
0
 s ( t t 0 )
d (t  t 0 )

  t  t0
t0

put

 x( )e  x(t )e
 
 st0  s
d  e  st0  st
dt  e  st0 X ( s )

e
0 0

If , x(t )  L1 [ X ( s)]

6. Initial value theorem

then, x(0  )  lim sX ( s)

s 

If , x(t )  L1[ X ( s)]

7. Final value theorem

then, x(  )  lim sX ( s)

s 8
s0

x(t )  L1[ X ( s )]  L1

s  6s  13
Ex. 1.2 Find 2

s8 ( s  3)  5
Solution:
X (s)   2
s  6s  13 s  6s  9  4
2

s3 (5 / 2)  2
 
( s  3) 2  2 2 ( s  3) 2  2 2

x(t )  L1[ X ( s )]  e 3t cos 2t  (t  0)

5 3t
e sin 2t
2
1.6 Modeling of Control Systems
The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known as mathematical
model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems. Analysis of control system
means finding the output when we know the input and mathematical model.
The following mathematical models are mostly used.
 Differential equation model
 Transfer function model

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Differential Equation Model

Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems. Follow these steps
for differential equation model.
 Apply basic laws to the given control system.
 Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the intermediate
variable(s).
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure 5. This circuit consists of resistor,
inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in series. The input voltage applied to
this circuit is Vi and the voltage across the capacitor is the output voltage Vo.

R L

+ +
Vi i Vo C
- -

Figure 5: RLC Circuit

Mesh equation for this circuit is

�
�� = � + + ∫�
Substitute, the current passing through capacitor
�
�� = �
in the above equation.
�
�� = � + +�
� �
�� = � + � +�

The above equation is a second order differential equation.

1.7 Mechanical Systems:

There are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.
(i) Translational mechanical systems
(ii) Rotational mechanical systems

Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems

Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly consist of three basic
elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper.
If a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing forces due to
mass, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied force and the opposing forces are in opposite
directions, the algebraic sum of the forces acting on the system is zero.
Mass
Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy. If a force is applied on a body having mass M,
then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing force is proportional to the
acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction is negligible.
X

M F
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∝�
= �=
Where,
 F is the applied force
 Fm is the opposing force due to mass
 M is mass
 a is acceleration
 x is displacement
Spring
Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring K, then it is opposed by
an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force is proportional to the displacement of the
spring. Assume mass and friction is negligible.

K X

F ∝x
⇒ Fk = Kx
F = Fk = Kx
Where,
 F is the applied force
 Fk is the opposing force due to elasticity of spring
 K is spring constant
 x is displacement
Dashpot (Damper)
If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to friction of the dashpot.
This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body. Assume mass and elasticity negligible.

B X

Fb ∝ ν
⇒Fb = Bν = B dx/dt
F = Fb = Bν = B dx/dt
Where,
 Fb is the opposing force due to friction of dashpot
 B is the frictional coefficient
 v is velocity
 x is displacement

Ex. 1.3 For the following translational system, find out the mathematical model and write the force
equations. Also find out the transfer function.

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Solution: As shown in the diagram, a force F is applied on the mass M, due to the force the displacement
of the mass is x,
Therefore in equilibrium condition

= + +
This equation is called the Force equation for the given model. To find out the Transfer function first we
need the Laplace Transform of the above equation, with assuming all initial conditions to be zero.
= + +
=[ + + ]
Therefore the transfer function will be

=
[ + + ]

1.8 Block Diagram Reduction Techniques:

The Block diagram Reduction rules are explained as under:

(a) Blocks in series

Below drawn Figure shows the basic rule for simplifying blocks in series.

X Y X Y
G1 G2 G1 G2

(b) Moving take-off points

As a means of simplifying block diagrams it is often necessary to move takeoff points.
The following figures give the basic rules for such movements.

(i) Moving a takeoff point to beyond a block

G
G

1/G
(ii) Moving a takeoff point to ahead of a block

G
G

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(c) Moving a summing point

As a means of simplifying block diagrams it is often necessary to move summing points. The following
figures give the basic rules for such movements.

(i) Rearrangement of summing points

+
+ +
X1
- X1
+ -
X2 X3
+ + X3 X2

(ii) Interchange of summing points

+ + + +
X1 X1
+ + + +

X2 X3 X3 X2

(iii) Moving a summing point beyond of a block

+
+ X G
X G +
+
Y G
Y

(iv) Moving a summing point ahead of a block

+
+ X G
X G
+ +

Y 1/
1/G
Y G

Ex. 1.4 Using the block diagram reduction technique, find the transfer function of the control system
represented by the following block diagram.

Answer:
We have to find out the Transfer function of the Control System using Block Diagram Reduction Technique.

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Step:1
Shifting the summing point after
block G1 to before block G1.

Step:2
Solving G1 and G2 in series.

Step:3
Interchanging the two summing
points.

Step:4
Solving the feedback formation.

Step:5
Solving the blocks in series.

Step:6
Solving the blocks in feedback.

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Step:7
Solving the blocks in feedback
again.
Therefore the transfer function of the control system will be as under

�
=
+ + +

1.9 Signal Flow Graphs

A signal flow graph is used to represent graphically a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. After
transforming linear differential equations into algebraic equations in complex variable s the signal flow
graph method may be employed for analysis of control systems.
The variables in the algebraic equation are represented by nodes and a graph is formed by connecting the
nodes with directed branches in such a way as to satisfy the algebra equations. The signal can flow only in
the direction of the arrow of the branch and it is multiplied by a factor indicated along the branch, which
happens to be the coefficient of the algebraic equation. The signal flow graph depicts the flow of signals
from one point of a system to another in a cause and effect relationships- the variable at the arrow head
being the dependent variable.
As an illustration, consider the algebraic equation x2 = g12x1, where x1 is the independent variable and x2 is
the dependent variable. The equation may be represented as a signal flow graph, where signal can flow
from x1 to x2 only in the direction of the arrow not the reverse. The magnitude of the signal at x2 is
obtained by multiplying the signal x1 with branch gain g12.
g12
x1 x2
Figure 1.9.1: A simple signal flow graph

A gai for ula, k o as Maso ’s gai for ula, ay e used to o tai the relatio ships a o g aria les
of a control system represented by a signal flow graph. It does not need any reduction of the original
graph, as was the case with the block diagram approach.
Node: A node is a point representing a variable or signal, (e.g., x1, x2 in Figure 1.9.1)
Transmittance: The transmittance is a gain, which may be real or complex between two nodes (g12 in
Figure 1.9.1).
Branch: A branch is a directed line segment between two nodes. The transmittance is the gain of a branch.
Input node: An input node has only outgoing branches and this represents an independent variable (e.g.,
x1 in Figure 1.9.1).
Output node: An output node has only incoming branches representing a dependent variable (e.g., x2 in
Figure 6). In order to comply with this definition an additional node may be introduced with unity gain to
act as an output node (e.g., x3 in Figure 1.9.1).
Mixed node: A mixed node is a node that has both incoming and outgoing branches (e.g., x2, x3)
Path: Any continuous unidirectional succession of branches traversed in the indicated branch direction is
called a path.
Loop: A loop is a closed path.
Loop gain: The loop gain is the product of the branch transmittances of a loop.
Non-touching loops: Loops are non-touching if they do not have any common nodes.
Forward path: A forward path is a path from an input node to an output node along which no node is
encountered more than once.
Feedback path (loop): A path which originates and terminates on the same node along which no node is
encountered more than once is called a feedback path.
Path gain: The product of the branch gains encountered in traversing the path is called the path gain.
Loop gain: The product of the branch gains of the branches forming that loop is called loop gain.

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1.9.1 Properties of Signal Flow Graphs

A few important properties of signal flow graphs are noted below:
1. A branch indicates the functional dependence of one variable on another.
2. A node performs summing operation on all the incoming signals and transmits this sum to all outgoing
branches.
1.9.2 Signal Flow Graph Algebra
With the help of the fore going terminologies and properties, we can draw the signal flow graph of a linear
system. For convenience, the input nodes are placed to the left and the output nodes to the right in the
signal flow graph. The independent variables of the equations become the input nodes while the
dependent variables become the output nodes in the graph. As already mentioned, the coefficients of the
algebraic equations are written as the branch transmittances.
The Maso ’s gai for ula hi h ill e prese ted shortly is used to find the relationship between any
aria le o sidered as i put a d a y other aria le take as output. For applyi g the Maso ’s gai
formula, we use the following rules:
1. The value of an output node with one incoming branch, as shown in Fig. is found by multiplying the input
variable with branch transmittance, x2 = g12x1.
2. The total transmittance of cascaded branches is equal to the gain of the path formed with all the
branches. Therefore, the cascaded branches can be replaced by a single branch with transmittance equal
to the path gains, as shown in Fig.
3. Parallel branches may be replaced by a single branch with transmittance which is equal to the sum of
the transmittances, as shown in Fig.
4. A mixed node may be eliminated, by modifying the graph as shown in Fig.
5. A loop may be eliminated by modifying the graph, as shown in Fig. We find in Fig. that x3 = g23 x2, and
x2 = g12 x1 – g32 x3. Hence

1.10 Maso ’s Gai For ula

In a control system the transfer functions between any input and any output ay e fou d y Maso ’s
Gai for ula. Maso ’s gai for ula is gi e y
�
= = ∑ �� ∆�
∆

Where Pk = path gain of kth forward path

Δ = determinant of the graph
= 1-∑ �� ℎ � � � � +
∑ �� ฀� -
∑ �� ℎ ℎ� +….
ΔK = Kth forward path determinant of the graph
= alue of Δ for that part of the lo k diagra that do ot tou h
the Kth forward path
H2 H3
Ex. 1.5 Find the transfer function of the Signal flow graph
shown in the picture.
L1 L2
G4
G1
G2 G3
Y(s)
R(s)
The paths connecting the input R(s) and output Y(s) are
G6 G7
P1 = G1G2G2G4 (path 1) and P2 = G5G6G7G8 (path 2).
G5 G8
There are four self-loops:
L1 = G2H2, L2 = H3G3, L3 = G6f6, and L4 = G7H7. L3 L4

H6 H7
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Loops L, and L2 do not touch L3 and L4. Therefore, the determinant is

A = 1 - (Li + L2 + L3 + L4) + (LtL3 + I4L4 + L2L3 + L2L4).
The cofactor of the determinant along path 1 is evaluated by removing the loops that touch path 1 from A.
Hence, we have
L = L = a d ∆ = – ( L3 + L4)
Similarly, the cofactor for path 2 is
∆ = 1 – ( L1 + L2)
Therefore, the transfer function of the system is
� �∆ +�∆
= =
∆

Ex. 1.6 Find out the overall gain of the signal flow graph shown in figure.

Solution:
This Signal flow graph is a two input two output
signal flow graph. Therefore, the gai ill e…
= . + .
= . + .

Ex. 1.7 Find out the overall gain of the signal flow graph shown in figure below.
We will solve this question by Masons gain formula.
Number of forward paths are two

� = and corresponding ∆ = − −

� = and ∆ = − −

And overall
∆= − − − − + + + +

Therefore according to the Masso ’s Gain Formula,

[ − − ]+[ − − ]
=
− − − − + + + +

1.11 Feedback Characteristics of Control Systems

Consider the block diagram of the open-loop and the closed-loop system shown below.
Input Output
+
X(s) G(s) Y(s)
-
R(s) Transfer C(s)
Function G(s) Error

H(s)

Open loop control System

Closed loop control System

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For open-loop system, C ( s)  G ( s) R( s)

For closed-loop system, C (s)  G(s) Ea ( s)  G( s)[ R( s)  H ( s)C ( s)]

Hence, we have, C ( s)  R( s) and, Ea ( s) 

G( s) 1
1  G( s) H ( s) 1  G( s) H ( s)
R( s)

It may be observed from above equations that in order to reduce error, the loop-gain G ( s ) H ( s ) should be
made large over the range of frequencies of interest, i.e., G(s) H (s) 1.

1.11.1 Reduction of parameter variations by use of feedback

One important property of negative feedback systems is that the reduction in the sensitivity to the
variation in the parameters of the forward path. In control systems, it is important that the transfer
function of the closed-loop control system be relatively insensitive to small changes in the values of the
parameters of the components in the forward path of the system.
Let  be a parameter of G(s). Then the sensitivity of G(s) with respect to the parameter  can be defined

Fractional change in G (s ) G / G  G
as,
SG    
Fractional change in   /  G 
.

T ( s)  
C (s) G(s)
R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )
Now, ;

 T  G G T 1  GH  GH
S       S  (1  GH )  
S G
T  G T  G (1  GH )2 1  G ( s) H ( s)
T G

Thus feedback has reduced sensitivity in the variation in  by the factor

1
1  GH
.

 T  H H T H (1  GH ) G. G
Again, ST       SH    SH   SH .
T  H T  H
GH
G (1  GH ) 2
1  GH
It may be observed that, the magnitude of two sensitivities are nearly equal for the variation of parameter
in the feedback path. Thus, feedback does not reduce the sensitivity to variation in the parameter in
feedback path.

Therefore, we can conclude that, G(s) in a closed-loop control system may be less rigidly specified.
Whereas, on the other hand, we must be careful in accuracy of H(s) in the feedback loop.

1.11.2 Control over system dynamics by use of feedback

Let us consider the simple feedback system shown below.

The open-loop transfer function is, G ( s) 

s
K
.

The impulse response for the non-feedback system would be, c(t )  Ke t u(t )  Ket /1 u(t ) .
The closed-loop transfer function of the above system is, T ( s) 
sK
K
.

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The impulse response of the closed-loop system is, c(t )  Ke u(t )  Ke 2 u(t ) .
 (   K )t  t /

The location of the pole and the dynamic response of the non-feedback and feedback system are shown in

It is seen that the time-constant of open-loop system is  1  1/  and that of closed-loop system is
Figure below.

 2  1/ (  K ) . As the time-constant of closed-loop system is less, its dynamic response is faster than the
same of the open-loop system.

1.11.3 Control of the effect of disturbance signal by use of feedback

A. Disturbance in the forward path

G2 ( s) 1 Td ( s )
  or, Cd ( s ) 
Cd ( s)
Td ( s) 1  G1 ( s)G2 ( s) H ( s) G1 ( s ) H ( s )
;
G1 ( s ) H ( s )

If G1 ( s ) is made very large, the effect of disturbance on the output will be very small.
B. Disturbance in the feedback path
G1 ( s)G2 ( s) H 2 ( s) 1
 
Cn ( s )
N ( s) 1  G1 ( s)G2 ( s) H1 ( s) H 2 ( s) H1 ( s)
1
Therefore, the effect of noise on output is, Cn ( s)   N ( s) .
H1 ( s )
Thus, to get the optimum performance of the control system, the measurement sensor should be designed
such that feedback gain H1 ( s) is maximum. This is equivalent to maximizing the signal to noise ration SNR
of the sensor.

1.11.4 Regenerative Feedback

The regenerative feedback is sometimes used for increasing the loop gain of the feedback system. Figure in
the following shows a feedback system where regenerative feedback occurs in the inner loop.

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− �

R(s) E(s) C(s) C(s) R(s) E(s) C(s) C(s)

1 1 1 G(s) 1 1
1

Gr(s) -H(s)

-H(s)
The open-loop gain is, Go ( s) 
G ( s)
1  Ga ( s)
.

R( s )  G ( s ) /1  Ga ( s) R( s)  G ( s)
The system response is obtained as, C ( s)  
1  Ga ( s)G ( s) /1  Ga ( s) 1  Ga ( s)  G ( s) H ( s)

When, Ga (s) 1 , C ( s) 
R( s )
. Due to high loop gain provided by the inner regenerative feedback loop,
H ( s)
the closed-loop transfer function becomes insensitive to G(s).

Ex. 1.8 A position control system is shown below. Assume, K=10,   2 ,   1 . Evaluate: SKT , ST , ST . For
r (t )  2 cos 0.5t and a 5% change in K , evaluate the steady-state response and the change in steady-state
response.
Here, G ( s)  , and H ( s )  
s(s   )
K

S KG    s(s   )   1;
s(s   )
K dG 1

 dG   dH
G dK
2
SG     ; SH   1
G d s   s  2 H d
R(s) C(s)
+�

s( s   ) s 2  2s
S KT    2
S KG
1  G ( s ) H ( s) s( s   )  K s  2 s  10
 s( s   ) 2s
Therefore, ST     2
SG
1  G ( s ) H ( s) s   s( s   )  K s  2 s  10
 S H  G ( s ) H ( s ) K 10
S T    2
1  G ( s) H ( s) s( s   )  K s  2 s  10

Now, T ( s)   2 At s  j 0.5 , T ( j 0.5)  1.02e j 0.102

s   s  K  s  2s  10
K 10
2
;

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Thus, css (t )  2.04cos(0.5t  0.102)

K T T K s 2  2s
Again, S KT     S KT   2  0.05
T K T K s  2s  10
s 2  2s 0.5s( s  2)
 T (s)   0.05  2  2 ;  T ( j 0.5)  0.005e j 4.672
10
s  2s  10
2
s  2s  10 ( s  2s  10) 2

Thus, css (t )  T ( j 0.5)  2cos 0.5t  0.01cos(0.5t  4.672) {Answer}

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