Chapter 3 o Ribosomes migrate into the

Cells and Tissues cytoplasm through nuclear pores

to serve as the site of protein
synthesis
Part I: Cells  Chromatin
 Cells are the structural units of all o Composed of DNA wound
living things around histones (proteins)
 The human body has 50 to 100 o Scattered throughout the
trillion cells nucleus and present when the
cell is not dividing
o Condenses to form dense,
Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life
rodlike bodies called
 The Cell Theory
chromosomes when the cell
1. A cell is the basic structural and
divides
functional unit of living
organisms
2. The activity of an organism The Plasma Membrane
depends on the collective  Transparent barrier for cell contents
activities of its cells  Contains cell contents
3. According to the principle of  Separates cell contents from
complementarity, the surrounding environment
biochemical activities of cells are  Fluid mosaic model is constructed
dictated by their structure of:
(anatomy) which determines o Two layers of phospholipids
their function (physiology)
arranged “tail to tail”
4. Continuity of life has a cellular
o Cholesterol and proteins
basis
scattered among the
 Most cells are composed of four
phospholipids
elements:
o Sugar groups may be attached
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen to the phospholipids, forming
3. Oxygen glycolipids
4. Nitrogen  Phospholipid arrangement in the
 Cells are about 60% water plasma membrane
o Hydrophilic (“water loving”) polar
“heads” are oriented on the inner
Anatomy of a Generalized Cell and outer surfaces of the
 In general, a cell has three main membrane
regions or parts: o Hydrophobic (“water fearing”)
1. Nucleus nonpolar “tails” form the center
2. Cytoplasm (interior) of the membrane
3. Plasma membrane  This interior makes the plasma
membrane relatively impermeable to most
water-soluble molecules
The Nucleus  Role of proteins
 Control center of the cell o Responsible for specialized
 Contains genetic material known as membrane functions:
deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA  Enzymes
o DNA is needed for building  Receptors for hormones or other
proteins chemical messengers
o DNA is necessary for cell  Transport as channels or carriers
reproduction  Role of sugars
 Three regions: o Glycoproteins are branched
1. Nuclear envelope (membrane) sugars attached to proteins that
2. Nucleolus abut the extracellular space
3. Chromatin o Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky,
 Nuclear envelope (membrane) sugar-rich area on the cell’s
o Consists of a double membrane surface
that bounds the nucleus  Cell membrane junctions
o Contains nuclear pores that  Cells are bound together in three
allow for exchange of material ways:
with the rest of the cell 1. Glycoproteins in the
o Encloses the jellylike fluid called glycocalyx act as an
the nucleoplasm adhesive or cellular glue
 Nucleolus 2. Wavy contours of the
o Nucleus contains one or more membranes of adjacent
dark-staining nucleoli cells fit together in a
o Sites of ribosome assembly tongue-and-groove
 fashion o Found at two locations:
3. Special cell membrane  Free in the cytoplasm
junctions are formed,  As part of the rough endoplasmic
which vary structurally reticulum
depending on their roles  Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
 Main types of cell junctions o Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals)
o Tight junctions that carry substances within the
 Impermeable junctions cell
 Bind cells together into leakproof o Continuous with the nuclear
sheets membrane
 Plasma membranes fuse like a o Two types:
zipper to prevent substances from passing  Rough ER
through extracellular space between cells  Smooth ER
 Main types of cell junctions  Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
(continued) (continued)
o Desmosomes o Rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Anchoring junctions, like rivets, that  Studded with ribosomes
prevent cells from being pulled apart as a  Synthesizes proteins
result of mechanical stress  Transport vesicles move proteins
 Created by buttonlike thickenings of within cell
adjacent plasma membranes  Abundant in cells that make and
 Main types of cell junctions export proteins
(continued)  Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
o Gap junctions (communicating (continued)
junctions) o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 Allow communication between cells  Lacks ribosomes
 Hollow cylinders of proteins  Functions in lipid metabolism
(connexons) span the width of the abutting  Detoxification of drugs and
membranes pesticides
 Molecules can travel directly from  Golgi apparatus
one cell to the next through these channels o Appears as a stack of flattened
membranes associated with tiny
vesicles
The Cytoplasm o Modifies and packages proteins
 The cellular material outside the
arriving from the rough ER via
nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
transport vesicles
 Site of most cellular activities
o Produces different types of
 Includes cytosol, inclusions, and
packages
organelles
 Secretory vesicles (pathway 1)
 Three major component of the
 In-house proteins and lipids
cytoplasm
(pathway 2)
1. Cytosol: Fluid that suspends
 Lysosomes (pathway 3)
other elements and contains
 Lysosomes
nutrients and electrolytes
o Membranous “bags” that contain
2. Inclusions: Chemical
substances, such as stored digestive enzymes
nutrients or cell products, that o Enzymes can digest worn-out or
float in the cytosol nonusable cell structures
3. Organelles: Metabolic machinery o House phagocytes that dispose
of the cell that perform functions of bacteria and cell debris
for the cell  Peroxisomes
 Many are membrane-bound, o Membranous sacs of oxidase
allowing for compartmentalization of their enzymes
functions  Detoxify harmful substances such as
 Mitochondria alcohol and formaldehyde
o “Powerhouses” of the cell  Break down free radicals (highly
o Mitochondrial wall consists of a reactive chemicals)
double membrane with cristae  Free radicals are converted to
on the inner membrane hydrogen peroxide and then to water
o Carry out reactions in which o Replicate by pinching in half or
oxygen is used to break down budding from the ER
food into ATP molecules  Cytoskeleton
 Ribosomes o Network of protein structures
o Made of protein and ribosomal that extend throughout the
RNA cytoplasm
o Sites of protein synthesis in the o Provides the cell with an internal
cell framework that determines cell
shape, supports organelles, and
 provides the machinery for o Nerve cell (neuron)
intracellular transport  Receives and transmits messages to
o Three different types of elements other body structures
form the cytoskeleton:  Cells of reproduction
1. Microfilaments (largest) o Oocyte (female)
2. Intermediate filaments  Largest cell in the body
3. Microtubules (smallest)  Divides to become an embryo upon
 Centrioles fertilization
o Rod-shaped bodies made of o Sperm (male)
nine triplets of microtubules  Built for swimming to the egg for
o Generate microtubules fertilization
o Direct the formation of mitotic  Flagellum acts as a motile whip
spindle during cell division Cell physiology
 Cells have the ability to:
o Metabolize
Cell Extensions o Digest food
 Surface extensions found in some o Dispose of wastes
cells o Reproduce
o Cilia move materials across the o Grow
cell surface o Move
 Located in the respiratory system to o Respond to a stimulus
move mucus
o Flagella propel the cell
 The only flagellated cell in the Membrane Transport
human body is sperm  Solution—homogeneous mixture of
o Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike two or more components
extensions of the plasma o Solvent—dissolving medium
membrane present in the larger quantity; the
 Increase surface area for absorption body’s main solvent is water
o Solutes—components in smaller
quantities within a solution
Cell Diversity
 Intracellular fluid
 The human body houses over 200
o Nucleoplasm and cytosol
different cell types
o Solution containing gases,
 Cells vary in size, shape, and
function nutrients, and salts dissolved in
o Cells vary in length from water
 Extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid)
1/12,000 of an inch to over 1
o Fluid on the exterior of the cell
yard (nerve cells)
o Cell shape reflects its o Contains thousands of
specialized function ingredients, such as nutrients,
 Cells that connect body parts hormones, neurotransmitters,
o Fibroblast salts, waste products
 The plasma membrane is a
 Secretes cable-like fibers
selectively permeable barrier
o Erythrocyte (red blood cell)
o Some materials can pass
 Carries oxygen in the bloodstream
through, while others are
 Cells that cover and line body
excluded
organs
o For example:
o Epithelial cell
 Nutrients can enter the cell
 Packs together in sheets
 Undesirable substances are kept out
 Intermediate fibers resist tearing
 Two basic methods of transport
during rubbing or pulling
o Passive processes: substances
 Cells that move organs and body
parts are transported across the
o Skeletal muscle and smooth membrane without any input
from the cell
muscle cells
o Active processes: the cell
 Contractile filaments allow cells to
shorten forcefully provides the metabolic energy
 Cell that stores nutrients (ATP) to drive the transport
o Fat cells process
 Passive processes: diffusion and
 Lipid droplets stored in cytoplasm
filtration
 Cell that fights disease
o Diffusion
o White blood cells, such as the
 Molecule movement is from high
macrophage (a phagocytic cell)
concentration to low concentration, down a
 Digests infectious microorganisms
concentration gradient
 Cell that gathers information and
 Particles tend to distribute
controls body functions
themselves evenly within a solution protein carriers for the transport of certain
 Kinetic energy (energy of motion) substances
causes the molecules to move about  Substances may not be lipid-soluble
randomly  Substances may have to move
 Size of the molecule and against a concentration gradient
temperature affect the speed of diffusion  Active processes (continued)
 Molecules will move by diffusion if o Active transport and vesicular
any of the following applies: transport
o The molecules are small enough o Active transport
to pass through the membrane’s  Amino acids, some sugars, and ions
pores (channels formed by are transported by protein carriers known as
membrane proteins) solute pumps
o The molecules are lipid-soluble  ATP energizes solute pumps
o The molecules are assisted by a  In most cases, substances are
membrane carrier moved against concentration (or electrical)
 Types of diffusion gradients
o Simple diffusion  Active transport example: sodium-
 An unassisted process potassium pump
 Solutes are lipid-soluble or small o Necessary for nerve impulses
enough to pass through membrane pores o Sodium is transported out of the
 Types of diffusion (continued) cell
o Osmosis—simple diffusion of o Potassium is transported into the
water across a selectively cell
permeable membrane  Active processes (continued)
 Highly polar water molecules easily o Vesicular transport: substances
cross the plasma membrane through are moved across the membrane
aquaporins “in bulk” without actually crossing
 Water moves down its concentration the plasma membrane
gradient o Types of vesicular transport
 Osmosis—A Closer Look  Exocytosis
o Isotonic solutions have the same  Endocytosis
solute and water concentrations  Phagocytosis
as cells and cause no visible  Pinocytosis
changes in the cell  Exocytosis
o Hypertonic solutions contain o Mechanism cells use to actively
more solutes than the cells do; secrete hormones, mucus, and
the cells will begin to shrink other products
o Hypotonic solutions contain o Material is carried in a
fewer solutes (more water) than membranous sac called a
the cells do; cells will plump vesicle that migrates to and
 Types of diffusion (continued) combines with the plasma
o Facilitated diffusion membrane
 Transports lipid-insoluble and large o Contents of vesicle are emptied
substances to the outside
 Glucose is transported via facilitated o Refer to pathway 1 in Figure 3.6
diffusion o Exocytosis docking process
 Protein membrane channels or  Docking proteins on the vesicles
protein molecules that act as carriers are recognize plasma membrane proteins and
used bind with them
 Passive processes  Membranes corkscrew and fuse
o Filtration together
 Water and solutes are forced  Endocytosis
through a membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic, o Extracellular substances are
pressure enclosed (engulfed) in a
 A pressure gradient must exist that membranous vesicle
pushes solute-containing fluid (filtrate) from o Vesicle detaches from the
a high-pressure area to a lower-pressure plasma membrane and moves
area into the cell
 Filtration is critical for the kidneys to o Once in the cell, the vesicle
work properly typically fuses with a lysosome
 Active processes o Contents are digested by
o ATP is used to move substances
lysosomal enzymes
across a membrane o In some cases, the vesicle is
o Active processes are used when:
released by exocytosis on the
 Substances are too large to travel opposite side of the cell
through membrane channels  Types of endocytosis
 The membrane may lack special 1. Phagocytosis—“cell eating”
 Cell engulfs large particles such as o Chromatin coils into
bacteria or dead body cells chromosomes; identical strands
 Pseudopods are cytoplasmic called chromatids are held
extensions that separate substances (such together by a centromere
as bacteria or dead body cells) from o Centrioles direct the assembly of
external environment a mitotic spindle
 Phagocytosis is a protective o Nuclear envelope and nucleoli
mechanism, not a means of getting have broken down
nutrients  Events of mitosis: metaphase
2. Pinocytosis—“cell drinking” o Chromosomes are aligned in the
 Cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular center of the cell on the
fluid containing dissolved proteins or fats metaphase plate (center of the
 Plasma membrane forms a pit, and spindle midway between the
edges fuse around droplet of fluid centrioles)
 Routine activity for most cells, such o Straight line of chromosomes is
as those involved in absorption (small now seen
intestine)  Events of mitosis: anaphase
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis o Centromere splits
 Method for taking up specific target
o Chromatids move slowly apart
molecules
and toward the opposite ends of
 Receptor proteins on the membrane
the cell
surface bind only certain substances
o Anaphase is over when the
 Highly selective process of taking in
substances such as enzymes, some chromosomes stop moving
hormones, cholesterol, and iron  Events of mitosis: telophase
o Reverse of prophase
o Chromosomes uncoil to become
Cell Division chromatin
 Cell life cycle is a series of changes o Spindles break down and
the cell experiences from the time it is disappear
formed until it divides o Nuclear envelope re-forms
 Cell life cycle has two major periods around chromatin
1. Interphase (metabolic phase) o Nucleoli appear in each of the
 Cell grows and carries on metabolic daughter nuclei
processes  Cytokinesis
 Longer phase of the cell cycle o Division of the cytoplasm
2. Cell division o Begins during late anaphase and
 Cell reproduces itself completes during telophase
 Preparations: DNA Replication o A cleavage furrow (contractile
o Genetic material is duplicated ring of microfilaments) forms to
and readies a cell for division pinch the cells into two parts
into two cells o Two daughter cells exist
o Occurs toward the end of  In most cases, mitosis and
interphase cytokinesis occur together
 Process of DNA replication  In some cases, the cytoplasm is not
o DNA uncoils into two nucleotide divided
chains, and each side serves as o Binucleate or multinucleate cells
a template result
o Nucleotides are complementary o Common in the liver and skeletal
 Adenine (A) always bonds with muscle
thymine (T)
 Guanine (G) always bonds with
cytosine (C) Protein Synthesis
o For example, TACTGC bonds  DNA serves as a blueprint for
with new nucleotides in the order making proteins
ATGACG  Gene: DNA segment that carries a
 Events of cell division blueprint for building one protein or
o Mitosis—division of the nucleus polypeptide chain
 Results in the formation of two  Proteins have many functions
daughter nuclei o Fibrous (structural) proteins are
o Cytokinesis—division of the the building materials for cells
cytoplasm o Globular (functional) proteins
 Begins when mitosis is near can act as enzymes (biological
completion catalysts)
 Results in the formation of two  DNA information is coded into a
daughter cells sequence of bases
 Events of mitosis: prophase  A sequence of three bases (triplet)
codes for an amino acid anticodon to the codon
 For example, a DNA sequence of o Steps correspond to Figure 3.16
AAA specifies the amino acid phenylalanine  Step 4: as the ribosome moves
 The role of DNA along the mRNA, a new amino acid is
o Most ribosomes, the added to the growing protein chain
manufacturing sites of proteins,  Step 5: released tRNA reenters the
are located in the cytoplasm cytoplasmic pool, ready to be recharged
o DNA never leaves the nucleus in with a new amino acid
interphase cells
o DNA requires a decoder and a Part II: Body Tissues
messenger to carry instructions  Tissues
to build proteins to ribosomes o Groups of cells with similar
o Both the decoder and structure and function
messenger functions are carried o Four primary types:
out by RNA (ribonucleic acid) 1. Epithelial tissue
 How does RNA differ from DNA? (epithelium)
o RNA is single-stranded 2. Connective tissue
o RNA contains ribose sugar 3. Muscle tissue
instead of deoxyribose 4. Nervous tissue
o RNA contains uracil (U) base
instead of thymine (T)
 Three varieties of RNA Epithelial Tissue
o Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfers  Locations:
o Body coverings
appropriate amino acids to the
ribosome for building the protein o Body linings
o Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Helps o Glandular tissue
form the ribosomes where  Functions:
proteins are built o Protection
o Messenger RNA (mRNA): o Absorption
Carries the instructions for o Filtration
building a protein from the o Secretion
nucleus to the ribosome  Hallmarks of epithelial tissues:
 Protein synthesis involves two major o Cover and line body surfaces
phases: o Often form sheets with one free
o Transcription surface, the apical surface, and
o Translation an anchored surface, the
 We will detail these two phases next basement membrane
 Transcription o Avascular (no blood supply)
o Transfer of information from o Regenerate easily if well
DNA’s base sequence to the nourished
complementary base sequence
of mRNA
o DNA is the template for
transcription; mRNA is the  Classification of epithelia
product o Number of cell layers
o Each DNA triplet corresponds to  Simple—one layer
an mRNA codon  Stratified—more than one layer
o If DNA sequence is AAT-CGT- o Shape of cells
TCG, then the mRNA  Squamous—flattened, like fish
corresponding codons are UUA- scales
GCA-AGC  Cuboidal—cube-shaped, like dice
 Translation  Columnar—shaped like columns
o Base sequence of nucleic acid is  Simple epithelia
translated to an amino acid o Functions in absorption,
sequence; amino acids are the secretion, and filtration
building blocks of proteins o Very thin (so not suited for
o Occurs in the cytoplasm and protection)
involves three major varieties of  Simple squamous epithelium
RNA o Single layer of flat cells
o Steps correspond to Figure 3.16 o Locations—usually forms
(step 1 covers transcription) membranes
 Step 2: mRNA leaves nucleus and  Lines air sacs of the lungs
attaches to ribosome, and translation begins  Forms walls of capillaries
 Step 3: incoming tRNA recognizes a  Forms serous membranes (serosae)
complementary mRNA codon calling for its that line and cover organs in ventral cavity
amino acid by temporarily binding its o Functions in diffusion, filtration,
 or secretion in membranes o Composed of modified stratified
squamous epithelium
o Shape of cells depends upon the
Epithelial Tissue amount of stretching
 Simple cuboidal epithelium o Functions in stretching and the
o Single layer of cubelike cells ability to return to normal shape
o Locations o Location: lining of urinary system
 Common in glands and their ducts organs
 Forms walls of kidney tubules  Glandular epithelia
 Covers the surface of ovaries o One or more cells responsible
o Functions in secretion and for secreting a particular product
absorption; ciliated types propel o Secretions contain protein
mucus or reproductive cells molecules in an aqueous (water-
 Simple columnar epithelium based) fluid
o Single layer of tall cells o Secretion is an active process
 Goblet cells secrete mucus  Two major gland types develop from
o Locations epithelial sheets
 Lining of the digestive tract from o Endocrine glands
stomach to anus  Ductless; secretions (hormones)
 Mucous membranes (mucosae) line diffuse into blood vessels
body cavities opening to the exterior  Examples include thyroid, adrenals,
o Functions in secretion and and pituitary
absorption; ciliated types propel o Exocrine glands
mucus or reproductive cells  Secretions empty through ducts to
 Pseudostratified columnar the epithelial surface
epithelium  Include sweat and oil glands, liver,
o All cells rest on a basement and pancreas (both internal and external)
membrane
o Single layer, but some cells are
shorter than others giving a false Connective Tissue
(pseudo) impression of  Found everywhere in the body to
stratification connect body parts
o Location: respiratory tract, where  Includes the most abundant and
it is ciliated and known as widely distributed tissues
pseudostratified ciliated  Functions
columnar epithelium o Protection
o Functions in absorption or o Support
secretion o Binding
 Stratified epithelia  Characteristics of connective tissue
o Consist of two or more cell o Variations in blood supply
layers  Some tissue types are well
o Function primarily in protection vascularized
 Stratified squamous epithelium  Some have a poor blood supply or
o Most common stratified are avascular
epithelium o Extracellular matrix
o Named for cells present at the  Nonliving material that surrounds
free (apical) surface, which are living cells
squamous  Two main elements of the
o Functions as a protective extracellular matrix
covering where friction is 1. Ground substance—mostly
common water, along with adhesion
o Locations—lining of the: proteins and polysaccharide
 Skin (outer portion) molecules
 Mouth 2. Fibers
 Esophagus  Collagen (white) fibers
 Stratified cuboidal epithelium—two  Elastic (yellow) fibers
layers of cuboidal cells; functions in  Reticular fibers (a type of collagen)
protection  Types of connective tissue from
 Stratified columnar epithelium— most rigid to softest, or most fluid:
surface cells are columnar, and cells o Bone
underneath vary in size and shape; o Cartilage
functions in protection o Dense connective tissue
 Stratified cuboidal and columnar o Loose connective tissue
o Rare in human body o Blood
o Found mainly in ducts of large  Bone (osseous tissue)
glands o Composed of:
 Transitional epithelium
 Osteocytes (bone cells) sitting in in place
lacunae (cavities) o Layer of areolar tissue called
 Hard matrix of calcium salts lamina propria underlies all
 Large numbers of collagen fibers membranes
o Functions to protect and support o All fiber types form a loose
the body network
 Cartilage o Can soak up excess fluid
o Less hard and more flexible than (causes edema)
bone  Adipose connective tissue
o Found in only a few places in the o An areolar tissue in which
body adipose (fat) cells dominate
o Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is o Functions
the major cell type  Insulates the body
o Types  Protects some organs
 Hyaline cartilage  Serves as a site of fuel storage
 Fibrocartilage o Locations
 Elastic cartilage  Subcutaneous tissue beneath the
 Hyaline cartilage skin
o Most widespread type of  Protects organs, such as the kidneys
cartilage  Fat “depots” include hips, breasts,
o Abundant collagen fibers hidden and belly
by a glassy, rubbery matrix  Reticular connective tissue
o Locations o Delicate network of interwoven
 Trachea fibers with reticular cells (like
 Attaches ribs to the breastbone fibroblasts)
 Covers ends of long bones o Forms stroma (internal
 Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth framework) of organs
 Epiphyseal (growth) plates in long o Locations
bones  Lymph nodes
 Elastic cartilage (not pictured)  Spleen
o Provides elasticity  Bone marrow
o Location: supports the external  Blood (vascular tissue)
ear o Blood cells surrounded by fluid
 Fibrocartilage matrix known as blood plasma
o Highly compressible o Soluble fibers are visible only
o Location: forms cushionlike discs during clotting
between vertebrae of the spinal o Functions as the transport
column vehicle for the cardiovascular
 Dense connective tissue (dense system, carrying:
fibrous tissue)  Nutrients
o Main matrix element is collagen  Wastes
fiber  Respiratory gases
o Fibroblasts are cells that make
fibers
o Locations Muscle Tissue
 Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to  Function is to contract, or shorten, to
bone produce movement
 Ligaments—attach bone to bone at  Three types of muscle tissue
joints and are more elastic than tendons 1. Skeletal
 Dermis—lower layers of the skin 2. Cardiac
 Loose connective tissue 3. Smooth
o Softer, have more cells and  Skeletal muscle tissue
fewer fibers than other o Packaged by connective tissue
connective tissues (except sheets into skeletal muscles,
blood) which are attached to the
o Types skeleton and pull on bones or
 Areolar skin
 Adipose o Voluntarily (consciously)
 Reticular controlled
 Areolar connective tissue o Produces gross body
o Most widely distributed movements or facial expressions
connective tissue o Characteristics of skeletal
o Soft, pliable tissue like muscle cells
“cobwebs”  Striations (stripes)
o Functions as a universal packing  Multinucleate (more than one
tissue and “glue” to hold organs nucleus)
 Long, cylindrical shape
 Cardiac muscle tissue permanent repair
o Involuntarily controlled  Scab detaches
o Found only in the heart  Whether scar is visible or invisible
o Pumps blood through blood depends on severity of wound
vessels  issues that regenerate easily
o Characteristics of cardiac muscle o Epithelial tissue (skin and
cells mucous membranes)
 Striations o Fibrous connective tissues and
 One nucleus per cell bone
 Short, branching cells  Tissues that regenerate poorly
 Intercalated discs contain gap o Skeletal muscle
junctions to connect cells together  Tissues that are replaced largely
 Smooth (visceral) muscle tissue with scar tissue
o Involuntarily controlled o Cardiac muscle
o Found in walls of hollow organs o Nervous tissue within the brain
such as stomach, uterus, and and spinal cord
blood vessels
o Peristalsis, a wavelike activity, is
a typical activity Developmental Aspects of Cells and
o Characteristics of smooth Tissues
muscle cells  Growth through cell division
 No visible striations continues through puberty
 One nucleus per cell  Cell populations exposed to friction
 Spindle-shaped cells (such as epithelium) replace lost cells
throughout life
 Connective tissue remains mitotic
Nervous Tissue and forms repair (scar) tissue
 Function is to receive and conduct  With some exceptions, muscle
electrochemical impulses to and from body tissue becomes amitotic by the end of
parts puberty
o Irritability  Nervous tissue becomes amitotic
o Conductivity shortly after birth
 Composed of neurons and nerve  Injury can severely handicap
support cells amitotic tissues
o Support cells called neuroglia  The cause of aging is unknown, but
chemical and physical insults, as well as
insulate, protect, and support
genetic programming, have been proposed
neurons
as possible causes
 Neoplasms, both benign and
Tissue Repair (Wound Healing) cancerous, represent abnormal cell masses
 Tissue repair (wound healing) occurs in which normal controls on cell division are
in two ways: not working
1. Regeneration  Hyperplasia (increase in size) of a
 Replacement of destroyed tissue by tissue or organ may occur when tissue is
the same kind of cells strongly stimulated or irritated
2. Fibrosis  Atrophy (decrease in size) of a
 Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue or organ occurs when the organ is no
tissue (scar tissue) longer stimulated normally
 Whether regeneration or fibrosis
occurs depends on:
1. Type of tissue damaged
2. Severity of the injury
 Clean cuts (incisions) heal more
successfully than ragged tears of the tissue
 Events of tissue repair
o Inflammation sets the stage
 Capillaries become very permeable
 Clotting proteins migrate into the
area from the bloodstream
 A clot walls off the injured area
o Granulation tissue forms
 Growth of new capillaries
 Phagocytes dispose of blood clot
and fibroblasts
 Rebuild collagen fibers
 Events of tissue repair (continued)
o Regeneration and fibrosis effect