TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENT…………………………………………………............. 1
CHAPTER 1
DEVICES FOR CONNECTING NETWORKS……………………………... 3
LAN TRANSMISSION DEVICES……………………………………… 3
MULTISTATION ACCESS UNIT (MAU or MSAU) …………………. 5
HUB……………………………………………………………………… 7
BRIDGE…………………………………………………………………. 8
ROUTER………………………………………………………………… 10
SWITCH…………………………………………………………………. 13
GATEWAY ……………………………………………………………… 16
WAN TRANSMISSION DEVICES……………………………………… 17
FREQUENTLY USED WAN TRANSMISSION DEVICES……………. 18
CABLE TV MODEMS…………………………………………………... 19
DSL MODEMS and ROUTERS………………………………………… 20
ACCESS SERVERS……………………………………………………... 21
SUMMARY …………………………………………………………. 22

CHAPTER 2
CONNECTING THROUGH A WIRELESS NETWORK…………………... 23
CURRENT WIRELESS NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES.…………. 23
RADIO WAVE TECHNOLOGIES……………………………………… 23
IEEE 802.11 RADIO WAVE NETWORKING…………………………. 25
WIRELESS COMPONENTS……………………………………………. 25
WIRELESS NETWORKING ACCESS METHODS……………………. 27
TRANSMISSION SPEEDS……………………………………………… 27
ALTERNATIVE RADIO WAVE TECHNOLOGIES…………………... 28
SUMMARY…………………………………………………………. 31

CHAPTER 3
SHARING RESOURCES ON A NETWORK………………………………. 32
WHAT IS PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKING?......................................... 32
PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKING FOR HOME USE…………………... 33
PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKING FOR OFFICE USE…………………. 33
CONFIGURING USER ACCOUNTS…………………………………… 33
CONFIGURING USER ACCOUNTS IN WINDOWS 7………………... 33
CONFIGURING ACCOUNTS IN UNIX/LINUX………………………. 33
CONFIGURING ACCOUNTS IN MAC OS X…………………………. 33
IMPLEMENTING A VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN)………. 34
STORAGE AREA NETWORKS (SAN)………………………………… 34
SUMMARY…………………………………………………………. 35

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CHAPTER 4
UNDERSTANDING AN IP ADDRESS……………………………………... 36
HOW IP ADDRESSING WORKS………………………………………. 36
IP AS A CONNECTIONLESS PROTOCOL……………………………. 36
USING INTERNET PROTOCOL VERSION 4 (IPV4) ………………… 37
IPV4 ADDRESS RULES………………………………………………… 38
USING INTERNET PROTOCOL VERSION 6 (IPV6) ………………… 39
FEATURES OF IPV6……………………………………………………. 39
THE ROLE OF SUBNET MASK………………………………………... 39
CREATING SUBNETWORKS………………………………………...... 40
STATIC IP CONFIGURATION - WINDOWS 7………………………... 40
TO ENABLE DHCP OR CHANGE OTHER TCP/IP
SETTINGS IN WINDOWS IN WINDOWS 8.1……………………. 44
TO ENABLE DHCP OR CHANGE OTHER TCP/IP
SETTINGS IN WINDOWS IN WINDOWS 10……………………. 44
SUMMARY…………………………………………………………. 45

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 Chapter 1

DEVICES FOR CONNECTING NETWORKS

Learning Objectives:

1. Describe how LAN network transmission equipment works, including

repeaters, MAUs, hubs, bridges, routers, switches, and gateways.
2. Describe how WAN network equipment works, including modems, ISDN
adapters, cable modems, DSL modems and routers, access servers, and
remote routers.
3. Design a router-based network.

DISCUSSION PROPER

LAN TRANSMISSION DEVICES

It uses of LAN transmission equipment that connecting devices on a single

network, creating and connecting multiple networks or sub network in setting up
some enterprise networks. Connecting devices that will be discussed are Repeaters,
MAUs, hubs, bridges, routers, switches, and gateways.

REPEATER
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over
the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend
the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An
important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify (expand) the
signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate
it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.
NOTE: as the signal travel it tends to weaken

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 Figure 1-1 Two LAN segment connected by a Repeater

Figure 1-2 Using Wireless Repeater

Uses of Repeaters

1. Extend cable segments.

2. Extend a wireless signal.
3. Increase number of nodes beyond segment.
4. Sense a network problem and shut down a segment.
5. Connect to components in other network devices.
6. Connect segments using different media.
7. Extend backbone cable segments in LANs, CANs, and MANs.
8. Extend long, fiber-optic cable segments.

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 9. Increase communication distance of T-carrier lines.

Types of Repeaters

According to the types of signals that they regenerate, repeaters can be

classified into two categories:
• Analog Repeaters − they can only amplify the analog signal.
• Digital Repeaters − they can reconstruct a distorted signal.

According to the types of networks that they connect, repeaters can be

categorized into two types:
• Wired Repeaters − they are used in wired LANs.
• Wireless Repeaters −they are used in wireless LANs and cellular networks.

According to the domain of LANs they connect, repeaters can be divided into two
categories:
• Local Repeaters − they connect LAN segments separated by small
distance.
• Remote Repeaters − they connect LANs that are far from each other.

Advantages of Repeaters

1. Repeaters are simple to install and can easily extend the length or the
coverage area of networks.
2. They are cost effective.
3. Repeaters don’t require any processing overhead. The only time they need
to be investigated is in case of degradation of performance.
4. They can connect signals using different types of cables.

Disadvantages of Repeaters

1. Repeaters cannot connect dissimilar networks.

2. They cannot differentiate between actual signal and noise.
3. They cannot reduce network traffic or congestion.
4. Most networks have limitations upon the number of repeaters that can be
deployed.

MULTISTATION ACCESS UNIT (MAU or MSAU)

It is a hub that connects computers and other devices to a token-ring network.

The MAU physically connects computers in a star topology while retaining
token ring’s logical ring structure.

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 However, every message passes through every computer, each passing it on
to the next in a continuing circle until it arrives at its proper destination. This leaves
the token-ring topology vulnerable in that a single non-operating node can break
the ring.
The MAU solves this problem because it has the ability to bypass non-
operating nodes and maintain the ring structure.MAU technology evolved into
newer devices: Control Access Unit (CAU): allows several connected, stack able
units to count as one MAU. CAUs also come with options for gathering information
used in network performance management.

Figure 1-3 Several MAUs can be interconnected via their Ring-In/ Ring-Out
ports to expand the network.

Tasks performed by MAU

1. Connect nodes in a logical ring through a physical star topology.

2. Move the token and frames around the ring.

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3. Amplify data signals.
4. Expand token ring network by daisy-chain connections.
5. Provide for orderly movement of data.
6. Shut down ports to malfunctioning nodes.

HUB
It is a central network device connecting nodes in a star topology. It is basically
a multiport repeater. It connects multiple wires coming from different branches. For
example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs
cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other
words, collision domain of all hosts connected through hub remains one. Also, they
do not have the intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to
inefficiencies and wastage.

Figure 1-4 Hub

Functions of a Hub
1. Centrally connect multiple nodes into one network.
2. Permit connections on single or multiple LANs.
3. Provide multi-protocol services.

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 4. Consolidate the network backbone.
5. Provide connections for several different media types.
6. Enable centralized network management and design.

Types of Hub

Active Hub - these are the hubs which have their own power supply and can
clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a
repeater as well as wiring centre. These are used to extend the maximum distance
between nodes.
Passive Hub - these are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes and power
supply from active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without
cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend the distance between
nodes.
Intelligent Hub - it work like active hubs and include remote management
capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also
enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to
configure each port in the hub.

BRIDGE

A bridge is a type of computer network device that provides interconnection

with other bridge networks that use the same protocol. Bridge devices work at the
data link layer of the Open System Interconnect (OSI) model, connecting two
different networks together and providing communication between them. Bridges
are similar to repeaters and hubs in that they broadcast data to every node.
However, bridges maintain the media access control (MAC) address table as
soon as they discover new segments, so subsequent transmissions are sent to only
to the desired recipient.

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 Figure 1-5 Bridge Connection

The working principle of a bridge is, it blocks or forwards the data depending
on the destination MAC address and this address is written into every data frame.

Figure 1-6 Working Principle of a bridge

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Functions of a Bridge

1. Extend a LAN when the maximum connection limit is reached.

Example: the 30-node limit on an Ethernet bus.
2. Extend a LAN beyond the length limit.
Example: beyond 185 meters for a thinnet segment.
3. Segment LANs to reduce data traffic bottlenecks.
4. Prevent unauthorized access to a LAN.
5. Learning: learn network topology and device addresses. Information is
stored in a bridging table.
6. Filtering: do not flood certain frames, discard others. Enables the bridge to
be used for security purposes.
7. Forwarding: transmit frames to destination. Based on data built-in to the
bridging table.

Types of Bridges
Local - directly connects two LANs in close proximity. Also used to segment
traffic to reduce bottlenecks.
Remote - join distant networks. Used to join networks in different cities or
states.

ROUTER

Routers are networking devices operating at layer 3 or a network layer of the

OSI model. They are responsible for receiving, analyzing, and forwarding data
packets among the connected computer networks.
When a data packet arrives, the router inspects the destination address, consults
its routing tables to decide the optimal route and then transfers the packet along this
route. Routers are manufactured by some popular companies like Cisco, D=Link,
HP, 3Com, Juniper and Nortel.
A router also the first line of security from intrusion into a network. Enabling
the highest level of security on the router turns on things like the firewall, and is the
best way to keep your computer system and information safe from attack.

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 Figure 1-7 Router

Figure 1-8 Using Wireless Router

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General functions of a Router

1. Reduce traffic by efficiently directing packets from one network to another.

2. Join neighboring or distant networks.
3. Connect dissimilar networks.
4. Prevent bottlenecks by isolating portions of a network.
5. Secure portions of a network by acting as a firewall.

Routing Table
The functioning of a router depends largely upon the routing table stored in it.
The routing table stores the available routes for all destinations. The router consults
the routing table to determine the optimal route through which the data packets can
be sent.
A routing table typically contains the following entities
• IP addresses and subnet mask of the nodes in the network.
• IP addresses of the routers in the network.
• Interface information among the network devices and channels.

Routing tables are of two types

Static Routing Table − also known as non-adaptive routing which doesn’t

change routing table unless the network administrator changes or modify them
manually. It is suitable for small networks containing 2-3 routers.

Dynamic Routing Table − also known as adaptive routing which change

routing table according to the change in topology. Dynamic routing uses complex
routing algorithms and it does not provide high security like static routing. It is
suited for larger networks having large number of routers.

Table 1-1 Difference between Static and Dynamic Routing

S.NO STATIC ROUTING DYNAMIC ROUTING

1. In static routing routes are user In dynamic routing, routes are updated
defined. according to topology.
2. Static routing does not use Dynamic routing uses complex routing
complex routing algorithms. algorithms.
3. Static routing provides high or Dynamic routing provides less
more security. security.
4. Static routing is manual. Dynamic routing is automated.
5. Static routing is implemented in Dynamic routing is implemented in
small networks. large networks.

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 6. In static routing, additional In dynamic routing, additional
resources are not required. resources are required.
7. In static routing, failure of link In dynamic routing, failure of link does
disrupts the rerouting. not interrupt the rerouting.

Types of Routers

A variety of routers are available depending upon their usages.

Wireless Router − they provide WiFi connection WiFi devices like laptops,
smartphones etc. They can also provide standard Ethernet routing. For indoor
connections, the range is 150 feet while its 300 feet for outdoor connections.
Broadband Routers − they are used to connect to the Internet through
telephone and to use voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology for providing
high-speed Internet access. They are configured and provided by the Internet
Service Provider (ISP).
Core Routers − they can route data packets within a given network, but cannot
route the packets between the networks. They helps to link all devices within a
network thus forming the backbone of network. It is used by ISP and
communication interfaces.

SWITCH

A switch is used to network multiple computers together. Switches made for

the consumer market are typically small, flat boxes with 4 to 8 Ethernet ports. These
ports can connect to computers, cable or DSL modems, and other switches. High-
end switches can have more than 50 ports and often are rack mounted.

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 Switches are more advanced than hubs and less capable than routers. Unlike
hubs, switches can limit the traffic to and from each port so that each device
connected to the switch has a sufficient amount of bandwidth. For this reason, you
can think of a switch as a "smart hub." However, switches don't provide the firewall
and logging capabilities that routers do. Routers can often be configured by
software (typically via a Web interface), while switches only work the way the
hardware was designed.

Figure 1-9 Switch Network Diagram

LAN uses two switching techniques (unlike bridges)

• Cut-through: forward portions of frame before entire frame is received.
• Store-and-forward: frame is buffered until entire frame is received.

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Types of Switches

Unmanaged Switch- these are inexpensive switches commonly used in home

networks and small businesses. They can be set up by simply plugging in to the
network, after which they instantly start operating. When more devices needs to be
added, more switches are simply added by this plug and play method. They are
referred to as u managed since they do not require to be configured or monitored.
Managed Switch- these are costly switches that are used in organization with
large and complex networks, since they can be customized to augment the
functionalities of a standard switch. The augmented features may be Quality of
Service (QoS) like higher security levels, better precision control and complete
network management. Despite their cost, they are preferred in growing
organizations due to their scalability and flexibility. Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP) is used for configuring managed switches.
LAN Switch - Local Area Network (LAN) switches connects devices in the
internal LAN of an organization. They are also referred as Ethernet switches or data
switches. These switches are particularly helpful in reducing network congestion or
bottlenecks. They allocate bandwidth in a manner so that there is no overlapping of
data packets in a network.
PoE Switch - Power over Ethernet (PoE) switches are used in PoE Gigabit
Ethernets. PoE technology combine data and power transmission over the same
cable so that devices connected to it can receive both electricity as well as data over
the same line. PoE switches offer greater flexibility and simplifies the cabling
connections.

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GATEWAY

A gateway interconnecting networks above the network layer is the most

complex network interconnection device. It is used only for interconnection of
different networks between two high-level protocols. The Gateways can be used for
both WAN and LAN interconnects.
A gateway is a computer system or device that serves as a transitional task.
The gateway is a translator between two systems that use different communication
protocols, data formats or languages, or even completely different architectures.
Unlike the bridges, which simply convey information, the Gateways repackage the
information they receive to suit the needs of the destination system.

Figure 1-10 LAN Gateway

Functions of a Gateway
1. Convert common protocols to specialized type.
2. Convert message formats from one format to another.
3. Translate different addressing schemes.
4. Link a host computer to a LAN.
5. Provide terminal emulation for connections to host.
6. Direct electronic mail to the right network destination.
7. Connect networks with different architectures.

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Types of Gateways

On basis of direction of data flow, gateways are broadly divided into two
categories:
• Unidirectional Gateways - they allow data to flow in only one direction.
Changes made in the source node are replicated in the destination node,
but not vice-versa. They can be used as archiving tools.
• Bidirectional Gateways- they allow data to flow in both directions.
They can be used as synchronization tools.

WAN TRANSMISSION DEVICES

A Wide Area Network (also known as WAN) is a large network of information

that is not tied to a single location. WANs can facilitate communication, the sharing
of information and much more between devices from around the world through a
WAN provider.

Characteristics of WAN transmission equipment

1. May have analog component or be completely digital.
2. Converts signal for long distance communications.
3. Creates multiple channels in medium (grow bandwidth).

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FREQUENTLY USED WAN TRANSMISSION DEVICES

ANALOG TELEPHONE MODEMS

The word modem stands for “modulator/demodulator,” which refers to the fact
that modems convert digital transmission signals to analog signals and vice versa.
Modems use two communication formats the synchronous and asynchronous.
Synchronous continuous data bursts controlled by a clock signal while
Asynchronous discrete signals delimited by start and stop bits.

Figure 1-11 Modem

When an analog facility is used for data communication between two digital
devices called Data Terminal Equipment (DTE), modems are used at each end.
DTE can be a terminal or a computer.
The modem at the transmitting end converts the digital signal generated by DTE
into an analog signal by modulating a carrier. This modem at the receiving end
demodulates the carrier and hand over the demodulated digital signal to the DTE.

ISDN Adapters
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a circuit-switched telephone
network system that transmits both data and voice over a digital line. It is a set of
communication standards to transmit data, voice, and signaling. These digital lines
could be copper lines. It was designed to move outdated landline technology to
digital. ISDN connections have a reputation for providing better speeds and higher
quality than traditional connections. Faster speeds and better connections allow data
transmissions to travel more reliably.

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 Figure 1-12 ISDN Adapter

CABLE TV MODEMS
Cable modem, modem used to convert analog data signals to digital form and
vice versa, for transmission or receipt over cable television lines, especially for
connecting to the Internet.
A cable modem modulates and demodulates signals like a telephone modem
but is a much more complex device. Data can be transferred over cable lines much
more quickly than over traditional phone lines. Transmission rates range from about
8 megabits per second (Mbps) for basic services to some 50 Mbps for premium
services. Uses two channels (frequencies) to communicate, the upstream and
downstream. Upstream transmits outgoing data, sound, TV signals while
downstream receives and blend incoming signals. Modem speeds may differ
upstream and downstream.

Example: 30 Mbps upstream, 15 Mbps downstream.

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 Figure 1-13 Upstream and Downstream system

DSL MODEMS and ROUTERS

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) works over copper wire likes ISDN. It requires
intelligent adapter in connecting computer or router. The maximum upstream and
downstream transmission rates are 200 Mbps and maximum distance from user to
Telco without a repeater is 5.5 kilometers (3.4 miles. DSL networks utilize
combined DSL adapter/router that can be used to direct network traffic and to create
a firewall so that only authorized users can access network services.
Advantages of DSL over cable is dedicated DSL line is more secure and DSL
line provides full bandwidth for the link (unlike cable modem, which is shared by
other users).

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ACCESS SERVERS
It combines WAN communications into one device. Internet Service Providers
(ISP) use Network Attached Storage (NAS) to provide Internet access to their
remote users. NAS works by enabling simultaneous connections between multiple
remote users through a dial-up connection, wired/wireless medium or multiple
supported analog/digital connectivity interfaces. Upon successful user
authentication, Internet access is granted.

Figure 1-14 Using an Access Server

Figure 1-15 WAN Connectivity Devices

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SUMMARY
Early networks use repeaters to expand network communications when the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) limits are reached or to
extend the range of wireless communications. Some network devices incorporate
repeater functions as they implement more complex network options such as
filtering and forwarding packets and frames
Routers and switches incorporate some bridging functions for networking and
are used in centralized star-based networks to connect segments and to link
networks to one another. Routers and switches can be equipped with intelligence to
help in collecting network data and for centralized network management. Routers
are popular because they control traffic patterns and they play a dual role providing
both LAN and WAN connectivity
Switches are popular because they are faster than hubs. Hub is commonly used
to connect segments of a LAN. It contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at
one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all
packets. Switch support any packet protocol. It filters and forwards packets between
LAN segments.
Analog modems used over PTSN lines have been used for many years in the
past. Cable modems have a widespread presence because they can be used over
existing cable TV lines and offer high-speed access. Access servers provide a single
unit in which to combine all types of telecommunications connectivity (modems,
T-1, ISDN, and DSL).Remote routers are used to join LANs at remote sites into
WANs.

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 Chapter 2

CONNECTING THROUGH A WIRELESS NETWORK

Learning Objectives:

1. Explain current wireless networking technologies.

2. Describe radio wave technologies.
3. Explain 802.11 radio wave networking.
4. Consider design options for wireless networks.

DISCUSSION PROPER

CURRENT WIRELESS NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES

Wireless technology resolves many wire-based issues and wireless media are
forms of electromagnetic radiation.

Advantages of Wireless Networks

1. Enabling communications in areas where a wired network would be difficult to
install.
2. Reducing installation costs.
3. Providing “anywhere” access to users that cannot be tied down to a cable.
4. Simplifying small office and home office networking.

Three major current Wireless Networking Technologies

1. Radio wave technologies (short range and a popular option).
2. Infrared technologies (short range).
3. Terrestrial and satellite microwave technologies (long range).

RADIO WAVE TECHNOLOGIES

A radio wave is a type of electromagnetic signal designed to carry information
through the air over relatively long distances. Sometimes radio waves are referred
to as Radio Frequency (RF) signals. These signals oscillate at a very high
frequency, which allows the waves to travel through the air similar to waves on an
ocean. Radio waves have been in use for many years. They provide the means for
carrying music to FM radios and video to televisions.
In addition, radio waves are the primary means for carrying data over a wireless
network. The frequency of a radio wave is the number of times per second that the
signal repeats itself. The unit for frequency is Hertz (Hz), which is actually the

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number of cycles occurring each second. In fact, an old convention for the unit for
frequency is cycles per second (cps). 802.11 WLANs use radio waves having
frequencies of 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, which means that the signal includes
2,400,000,000 cycles per second and 5,000,000,000 cycles per second, respectively.
The amplitude of a radio wave indicates its strength. The measure for
amplitude is generally power, which is analogous to the amount of effort a person
needs to exert to ride a bicycle over a specific distance. Radio waves have
amplitudes with units of watts, which represent the amount of power in the signal.
Watts have linear characteristics that follow mathematical relationships we are all
very familiar with. For example, the result of doubling 10 milliwatts (mW) is 20
mW.
Spread spectrum radio components use either direct sequence or frequency
hopping for spreading the signal. Direct sequence modulates a radio carrier by a
digital code with a bit rate much higher than the information signal bandwidth.The
ffrequency range is 902–928 MHz range and data transfer range is 1–600 Mbps.
Other radio wave technologies include Bluetooth, HiperLAN, Infrared, WiMAX,
HiperMAN, and cellular phone.

Directional signal transmitted between buildings

• Transmission involves sending and receiving antennas
• Wave is short in length and low-power (1-10 watts)
• Suitable for line-of-sight transmission
• Signal goes from point to point on earth's surface
• Limitations due to interruptions, such as hills
• Data capacity range: 1 Mbps to over 300 Mbps

Figure 2-1 Wireless Communications by Radio Waves

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Advantages to radio wave communications
1. Can save money where it is difficult or expensive to run cable.
2. Useful in situations where portable computers deployed.
3. Relatively easy and inexpensive to install.

Disadvantages to radio wave communications

1. Wireless networks are more susceptible to interference (such as interference
caused by certain building materials and by surrounding electrical devices).
2. Some wireless frequencies are shared by amateur radio operators, the US
military, and cell phone companies – can cause interference.
3. Interference from natural obstacles.
4. Inadequate security.

IEEE 802.11 RADIO WAVE NETWORKING

It is the IEEE 802.11 group. The most influential wireless standards includes
802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n. Communication with 802.11 devices is
non-proprietary. There is a features of 802.11 standards that encompass either fixed
or mobile wireless stations and involve two kinds of communications the
asynchronous is the discrete units with a start and stop bit and synchronous is the
signal has timing restrictions. To support SNMP protocol and network
authentication. To operate at two lower OSI layers: Data Link and Physical and
Recognize indoor and outdoor wireless communication.

WIRELESS COMPONENTS
Wireless networks use an Access Point (AP), also called a Wireless Access
point (WAP), to provide a gateway to the wired network and a wireless local area
network adapter (WLAN adapter or simply wireless adapter) to provide a link
between a wireless client PC and the AP.
An Access Point connects to the wired network (or directly to a cable/DSL
modem) and can simultaneously provide wireless links to many wireless adapters.
A typical AP allows 32 or 64 wireless adapters to be connected simultaneously.May
support the following types of network interfaces: AUI, 10Base2, 10BaseT,
100Base technologies, 1000Base technologies, 40 GB Ethernet technologies, 100
GB Ethernet technologies, FDDI, Cable modem port, or DSL telecommunications
port.
An Antenna is a device that radiates and receives radio waves. Most are either
directional or omnidirectional.
• Directional Antenna sends radio waves in one main direction.
Amplifies signal better than omnidirectional antenna. It gains

25
 amplification of radiated signal and for application transmitting signals
between buildings, each building has an antenna, antennas connected
to access points, signal has more gain in one direction and small portion
of signal is radiated outward.

Figure 2-2 Directional Antenna

• Omnidirectional Antenna receive signals equally from all directions.

Directional antennas pull in signals better from one direction. It
deployed varies with device such as WNIC on portable devices use a
Snap-On antenna, access point for indoor network and outdoor access
point connects to antenna via a cable.

Figure 2-3 Omnidirectional Antenna

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WIRELESS NETWORKING ACCESS METHODS

The access method is a way of sharing a common transmission medium (cable,

wireless link) between several hosts. Two access methods are priority-based and
CSMA/CA.
• Priority-based access is an access point device functions as a point
coordinator, point coordinator establishes contention-free period
during which it polls stations to see which devices need to transmit and
intended for time sensitive communications.

• Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

also called the distributed coordination function and coordinate nodes
using DIFS delay and back-off time. CSMA/CA works to avoid
collisions.

TRANSMISSION SPEEDS
The rate at which data are moved across a communications channel. Following
are the transmission speeds of common LAN and WAN technologies. It correspond
to the Physical layer of the OSI model.
Transmission speeds are defined through four IEEE standards: 802.11a, 802.11b,
802.11g, and 802.11n. There are two newer very-high-speed wireless LAN standards
under development: 802.11ac and 802.11ad.
• 802.11a transmits data over a wireless network. It uses a 5
GHz frequency band and supports data transfer rates of 54 Mbps, or
6.75 megabytes per second.
• 802.11b outlines speeds in the 2.4 GHz frequency range with a
minimum speed of 1 Mbps up to the maximum speed of 11 Mbps.
• 802.11g has very Fast operating speed and signal range is also good and
is not easily obstructed. It supports three transmission methods on the
2.4 GHz band.There’s a restrictions and considerations using 802.11g
that devices must support minimum speeds by standard, slightly shorter
range than 802.11b, smaller bandwidth (90 MHz) than 802.11a or
802.11b and devices combine with 802.11b devices on one LAN.
• 802.11n uses a technology called multiple-input multiple-output
(MIMO) with spatial multiplexing. Multiple frames can be aggregated
together in one transmission. Number of times a channel must be
acquired and released is significantly reduced due to frame aggregation,
making it more efficient than other 802.11 technologies can use 20 and
40 MHz channels within the 2.4 and 5 GHz bands. At this writing, most
802.11n devices have a top speed of 300+ Mbps.

27
 • 802.11ac is currently under development. It designed around the
technologies used by 802.11n and expands transmission capabilities to
use the 80 MHz channel for even wider bandwidth.
• 802.11ad is also under development. It targeted at accomplishing
transmission speeds of roughly 7 Gbps. Operates using the 60 MHz
channel. Designed for shorter transmission distances (likely to be
restricted by walls and manufacturers are looking at 802.11ad for Wi-Fi
based phone communications and HD movies on big-screen wireless
TVs.

ALTERNATIVE RADIO WAVE TECHNOLOGIES

The popular alternatives to 802.11 group are:

Bluetooth
Occurs in 2.4 GHz range (2.4–2.4835 GHz. Uses high wattage transmissions
that can reach up to 100 meters and can use asynchronous or synchronous
communication.
Bluetooth devices are divided into three classes based on range:
• Class 1: up to about 100 meters.
• Class 2: up to about 10 meters such as wireless devices such as
keyboards, mice, microphones, and audio devices.
• Class 3: up to about 1 meter used for close range transmissions such as
medical monitoring devices, watches, and exercise monitoring.

High-Performance Radio Local Area Network (HiperLAN)

There’s a features of second version, HiperLAN2 that transmits at up to 54
Mbps in the 5 GHz range. Compatible with Ethernet. Supports Data Encryption
Standard (DES) and Quality of Service (QoS).

Infrared Technologies
Broadcasts in single direction or all directions. Advantages of infrared medium
are inexpensive, difficult to intercept and not susceptible to Radio-Frequency
Interference (RFI) or Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). Slow data transmissions
(between 1 and 16 Mbps), does not penetrate walls and experiences interference
from strong visible light, these are the disadvantages of infrared medium.

Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) operates in the 2
to 66 GHz range. The IEEE 802.16 standard provides connectivity up to 75 Mbps

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with a reach of up to 48 kilometers (30 miles).WiMAX can be a cost-effective way
to create a network over several miles.

Wireless Hotspots
The locations that provide a public access point to users. There’s two type of
wireless hotspots:
• Stationary: examples include a library, an airport, a coffee shop, or
hotel.
• Mobile: 3G and 4G networks make it possible for individuals to create
their own wireless hotspots from any location that is accessible by a cell
phone.

Cellular Phone Communications

It works on the basis of packet radio. Smartphone or cell phone acts as a radio
transmitter and receiver equipped with an omnidirectional antenna.

Microwave Technologies
Have theoretical bandwidth up to 720 Mbps and beyond work in one of two
ways:
• Terrestrial Microwave two directional parabolic antennas (dishes. It
performed in ranges of 4–6 GHz and 21–23 GHz. Uses of terrestrial
microwave transmission, the cabling costs are too high whereas cabling
and wireless options not possible.
• Satellite Microwave transmits signal between three antennas, one
antenna on a satellite in space. Connection speeds are currently at 2-3
Mbps with newer systems providing up to 12 Mbps. The user equipment
needed for satellite communication are satellite dish about 2 or 3 feet in
diameter, digital modems to transmit and receive signals, coaxial (TV-
like) cables from the modems to dish ,USB cable from modems to a USB
port on computer and software from provider to enable computer setup.

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Figure 2-4 Terrestrial and Satellite Microwave

Figure 2-5 Satellite Communications Setup

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SUMMARY

Wireless network technologies: radio wave, infrared, microwave, and satellite

wireless networks. Wireless networks are used in areas where wired networks are
difficult to install, are used to reduce network installation costs, and are used to
enable mobile computing.
Radio wave technologies typically use line-of-sight communications. Radio
wave technologies also use spread spectrum communications IEEE 802.11 parts:
WNIC, access points, antennas802.11 standards group: 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g,
and 802.11n. Standards in development: 802.11ac and 802.11ad. Radio technology
alternatives include Bluetooth and HiperLAN. 802.11R standard uses diffused
infrared light transmissions for small networks.
Wireless MANs use the 802.16 (WiMAX) standard for communication up to
48 kilometers. Wireless mobile hotspots can be established using a 3G/4G mobile
device.
Cellular phone communications use base stations for each cell and connect base
stations to call switching centers to direct calls.
Microwave networking comes in two forms: terrestrial microwave and satellite
microwave.

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 CHAPTER 3

SHARING RESOURCES ON A NETWORK

Learning Objectives:
1. Explain how to use peer-to-peer networking in a home or office.
2. Configure user accounts.
3. Explain virtual private networks.
4. Explain storage area networks.

DISCUSSION PROPER

What is Peer-to-Peer Networking?

The peer-to-peer network is one of the easiest ways to configure a network,
often used for home offices and small businesses. Workstations are used on a peer-
to-peer network to share resources, such as files and printers, and to connect
resources to other computers.

Figure 3-1 A simple peer-to-peer network in a small office.

Files, folders, software, printers, and peripherals on one computer can be shared
and made available to others. No special host computer, such as a server, is needed
to allow workstations to communicate and share resources, although in some cases
the server can be used as a powerful workstation. Figure 3-1 above shows a peer-
to-peer network.

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Peer-to-Peer Networking for Home Use
Many people have set up a peer-to-peer network for home use. Even if your
home has only two computers, a peer-to-peer network can make sense of sharing a
printer, an Internet connection, and a file. If you have more computers in your home,
the network makes even more sense for the same reasons plus others, such as
keeping backup copies of financial files on two computers.

Peer-to-Peer Networking for Office Use

Peer-to-peer networking can make sense for a small office for many of the same
reasons as home-based sharing of resources. Also, peer-to-peer networking can be
valuable in a small office to help make users more productive, enabling them to
share information without having to walk from one desk to another to exchange an
external drive or flash drive.

Configuring User Accounts

Most operating systems, including Windows, UNIX/Linux and Mac OS X
Systems, manage access to shared resources through user accounts. A computer
user account could be compared to a bank account. A bank is a repository of
resources that can be accessed through bank accounts. It is the number and security
of the account used by the bank account.
When sharing resources over a network, you should first configure people's
user accounts to access those resources.

Configuring User Accounts in Windows 7

User accounts are configure and managed through the Windows 7 Control
Panel’s User Accounts too. Three actions performed with User Accounts tool:
Create an account, Modify an account, such as the password and Delete an account.

Configuring Accounts in UNIX/Linux

Access to shared resources on the UNIX/Linux system is also managed via
user accounts. Each UNIX/Linux user account is associated with the User
Identification Number (UID). Also, users who have common access needs can be
assigned to a group using the Group Identification Number (GDI) and then the
access resource permissions are assigned to the group instead of to each user. When
the user logs on to access resources, the password file is checked to allow l to access
resources.

Configuring Accounts in Mac OS X

You can also configure Mac OS X Snow Leopard and Lion for multiple
accounts using the Accounts utility in System Preferences. When using Mac OS X

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in a home, public library, or other child location, parental controls are useful
features that can be configured. Types of accounts that can be created:
• Administrator: used to manage the computer and operating system.
• Standard: grants access privileges for general users.
• Sharing only: grants access only to shared resources (files and
folders) but not applications.
• Group: contains only other users or groups.
• Managed with parental controls: establishes parental controls
on an account.

Implementing a Virtual Private Network (VPN)

For organizations, one problem with sharing resources is how to make them
securely available to users who travel or work from home. Another problem is
secure communications for resources sharing between a main business location and
its branch offices. One solution is to use a virtual private network.
A Virtual Private Network is a private network, which is like a private tunnel
through a larger network, such as the Internet, an enterprise network or both, which
is restricted to designated member clients only. Its purpose is to provide very secure
networking for people connected through the Internet.
A VPN connection requires the use of a remote access protocol to carry packets
over a WAN connection. The most common protocol for VPN security is IP
security (IPsec).IPsec secures IP communications on the network layer of the OSI
model.
Some VPN networks use the Layer Two Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) running
inside IPsec for extra security. L2TP is using an additional standard called Layer
Two Forwarding. Allows forwarding on the basis of MAC address in addition to IP
address.

Storage Area Networks (SAN)

Some server-based networks centralize storage on a network in arrays of disk
drives that are shared by users through network servers. This arrangement is called
a Storage Area Network. SAN, which is a grouping devices that forms a subnet.
The subnet containing the storage devices typically use Fibre Channel or
Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI) technology, is another high-
speed technology in SANs that employs TCP/IP communications and Small
Computer System Interface (SCI) disk drives.
In terms of the physical device, a SAN usually looks like a large box or chassis
enclosure containing disk drives, disk controllers, and an interconnection device,
such as a switch, that connects to one or more servers.

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 Figure 3-2 A basic Storage Area Network

SUMMARY
Peer-to-peer networks are relatively easy to set up and inexpensive to maintain.
As networks grow in size and require more centralized management, peer-to-
peer is not a good option.
Also configure file permissions in Windows, Mac OS X, and UNIX/Linux
systems.
A Virtual Private Network (VPN) enables remote users to access shared
resources through secure tunnels.
A Storage Area Network (SAN) can be used to group storage devices on a
subnet for sharing storage among multiple servers.

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 Chapter 4

UNDERSTANDING AN IP ADDRESS

Learning Objectives:

1. Discuss how IP addressing works.

2. Understanding IPv4 and IPv6 addressing.
3. Discuss the role of Subnetting.
4. Discuss how IP address configuration.

DISCUSSION PROPER

How IP addressing works

Internet Protocols enables packets to reach different sub-networks on a LAN
and different networks on a WAN, provided that such networks use transport
options that are TCP/IP compatible, including Ethernet, FDDI, ISDN, DSL, Framel
relay, ATM (with conversion), MPLS, and SONET.

IP as a Connectionless Protocol
IP is a connectionless protocol because its primary mission is to provide
network-to-network addressing and routing information and to change the size of
packets when the size varies from network to network, such as from Ethernet to
FDDI.

Figure 4-1 TCP/IP Packet Encapsulation

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Using Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)
IPv4 address format is called the dotted decimal notation address. It is 32 bits
long and contains four fields, which are decimal values representing 8-bit binary
octets. An IPv4 address in binary octet format looks like this:
10000001.00000101.00001010.01100100. This number converts to 129.5.10.100
in decimal format. Part of the address is the network identifier (network ID), and
another part is the host identifier (host ID).
There are five IP address classes, Class A through Class E, and each is used
with a different type of network. The address classes reflects the size of the network
and whether the packet is unicast or multicast.
• Unicast is a transmission in which one packet is sent from a server to
each client the requests a file or an application, as is done with a video
presentation. If five clients request the video presentation, the server
sends five packets per each transmission to the five clients.
• Multicast, means that the server is able to treat all five clients as a group
and send one packet per transmission that reaches all five clients.
Multicast can be used to significantly reduce network traffic when
transmitting multimedia applications.
• Broadcast, which sends a communication to all points on a specific
network (router are often configured so that they do not forward
broadcasts to other networks).

Figure 4-2 IP address classes

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 Figure 4-3 IP Address as a 32-Bit Binary Number

Figure 4-4 Binary and Decimal Conversion

IPv4 Address Rules

• Network number 127.0.0.0 cannot be assigned.
• Certain IP network numbers reserved as private.
• No one can use private addresses on Internet.
• Network number cannot be assigned to any device.
• Highest number on a network cannot be assigned.

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Using Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)
IPv6 developed through IETF initiative. The IPv6 overcomes limitations of
IPv4, because IPv4 has no provision for network security or advanced routing
options and IPv4 offers no options for handling streaming video or video
conferencing.IPv6 uses eight 16-bit hexadecimal fields
example:1042:0071:0000:0000:07ac:0522:210c:425b.

Figure 4-5 Decimal Equivalents of 8-bit Decimal Conversion

Features of IPv6
• 128-bit address capability.
• Single address associated with multiple interfaces.
• Address auto configuration and CIDR addressing.
• 40-byte header instead of IPv4’s 20-byte header.
• New IP extension headers for special needs.
• Includes more routing and security options.
• Use of IP security (IPsec).
• Simpler automatic address configuration.
• More compact and efficient routing tables.
• Replacement of ARP by Neighbor Discovery.

The Role of Subnet Mask

TCP/IP address require a configured subnet mask. A subnet mask is used for
two purposes: to show the class of addressing used, and to divide a network into
sub networks to control network traffic. The subnet mask enables an application to
determine which part of the address is for the network ID and which is for the host
ID, example, and a subnet mask for a Class A network is all binary ones in the first

39
octet and all binary 0s in the remaining octets:
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 (255.0.0.0).

Creating Subnetworks
To divide the network into subnetworks, the subnet mask contains a subnet ID,
determined by the network administrator, which the network and hosts IDs.
Example, the entire third octet in a Class B address could be designated to indicate
the subnet ID, which would be an octet of
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 (255.255.255.0).
Note that using a subnet mask to divide a network into a series of smaller
networks enables Layer 3 device effectively ignore traditional address class
designations, and therefore, it creates more options for segmenting networks
through multiple subnets ad additional network addresses. A newer way to ignore
address class designation is using Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR)
addressing, which puts a slash (/) after the dotted decimal notation. For example,
165.100.18.44/18, meaning 18 bits needed for network ID, 14 for host ID (32 -18)

Static IP Configuration - Windows 7

1. Click the Start menu. Next, click on the Control Panel option.

Figure 4-6 Windows 7 Control Panel

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2. Click on the Network and Sharing Center option.

Figure 4-7 Windows 7 Network Sharing

3. Click on Change adapter settings from the left side menu.

Figure 4-8 Windows 7 Adapter Settings

41
4. Right-click on the Local Area Connection icon, then select Properties.

Figure 4-9 Windows 7 Network Connections

5. In the window that opens, click on the Internet Protocol Version 4

(TCP/IPv4) (you may need to scroll down to find it). Next, click on the
Properties button.

Figure 4-10 LAN Properties

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6. In the window that opens, click the Use the following IP address: radio
button. In the IP address: Subnet mask: and Default gateway: number fields,
insert the numbers that were assigned to you by OIT.

Figure 4-11 IPv4 Properties

7. Next, click the Use the following DNS server addresses: radio button. Next,
in the Preferred DNS server: and Alternate DNS server: number fields,
input the numbers that were assigned by OIT. Then click the OK button.

Figure 4-12 DNS Configuration

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 8. Click OK in the other window. You can now start using your new internet
connection. If for some reason the internet connection doesn't start working
right away, restart the computer and try again.

To enable DHCP or change other TCP/IP settings in Windows in Windows 8.1

1. Select the Start button, start typing View network connections, and then
select View network connections in the list.
2. Right-click the connection that you want to change, and then select Properties. If
you're prompted for an administrator password or confirmation, type the password
or provide confirmation.
3. Select the Networking tab. Under This connection uses the following items,
select either Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) and then
select Properties.
4. To specify IPv4 IP address settings, do one of the following:

• To get IP settings automatically using DHCP, select Obtain an IP address

automatically, and then select OK.
• To specify an IP address, select Use the following IP address, and then, in
the IP address, Subnet mask, and Default gateway boxes, type the IP
address settings.

5. To specify DNS server address settings, do one of the following:

• To get a DNS server address automatically using DHCP, select Obtain

DNS server address automatically, and then select OK.
• To specify a DNS server address, select Use the following DNS server
addresses, and then, in the Preferred DNS server and Alternate DNS
server boxes, type the addresses of the primary and secondary DNS
servers.

6. To change advanced DNS, WINS, and IP settings, select Advanced.

To enable DHCP or change other TCP/IP settings in Windows in Windows 10

1. Select Start, then select Settings > Network & Internet.

2. Do one of the following:

• For a Wi-Fi network, select Wi-Fi > Manage known networks. Choose the
network you want to change the settings for, then select Properties.

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 • For an Ethernet network, select Ethernet, then select the Ethernet network
you’re connected to.

3. Under IP assignment, select Edit.

4. Under Edit IP settings, select Automatic (DHCP) or Manual.

To specify IPv4 settings manually:

o Under Edit IP settings, choose Manual, then turn on IPv4.

o To specify an IP address, in the IP address, Subnet prefix length,
and Gateway boxes, type the IP address settings.
o To specify a DNS server address, in the Preferred DNS and Alternate
DNS boxes, type the addresses of the primary and secondary DNS servers.

• When you select Automatic (DHCP), the IP address settings and DNS server
address setting are set automatically by your router or other access point
(recommended).
• When you select Manual, you can manually set your IP address settings and
DNS server address.

5. When you’re done, select Save.

SUMMARY
IP enables data transfer and routing with packet addressing. UDP used with IP
(instead of TCP) in certain non-critical situations.
IPv4 is predominantly in use today but has the limitation that IPv4 addresses
are almost all used up.
IPv6 is newest version of IP which is not yet employed on many networks.
A subnetting, or sub networking, is the process of splitting a single large
network into two or more strands. This means that an otherwise mammoth and
unwieldy network can be subdivided into smaller, more localized networks.
The IP Configuration window configures the Internet Protocol parameters,
allowing the device to receive and send IP packets. In its factory
default configuration, the switch operates as a multiport learning bridge with
network connectivity provided by the ports on the switch.

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