What is mass media research?

Describe the development of mass media

research. What are the characteristics of scientific method? Discuss the
procedure of research.

Introduction

Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the

observed phenomenon. The main purpose of research is to inform action, to
prove a theory, and contribute to developing knowledge in a field or study
according to the scientific method. Research can be about anything but the
important thing for all researchers to understand is the correct methods to follow
and to ensure the best results.

Definition of Research

Generally we can say that Research is a creative and systematic work

undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans,
culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new
applications.

According to Creswell “Research is a process of steps used to collect and

analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue”.

[Ref. Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating

quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.]

So Research is a systematic, formal, rigorous and precise process employed to

gain solutions to problems or to discover and interpret new facts and
relationships.

Mass Media Research

Generally we can say that Mass media research, deals with the production of
programs and the consumption of the audience.
Mass media research is the study of information related to any form of mass
communication.

[https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-mass-media-research-definition-
examples.html]

The Development of Mass Media Research

Mass media research has developed gradually in definable steps, and similar
patterns have been followed in each medium’s needs for research. Given below
the development of mass media research:

Mass media research developed in four phases. These are

PHASE 1
The medium
Itself

PHASE 4 PHASE 2

How the medium can Uses and users of

be improved
the medium

PHASE 3

Effects of the medium

The descriptions of these are given below:

In Phase 1 of the research, there is an interest in the medium itself. What is it?
How does it work? What technology does it involve? How is it similar to or
different from what we already have? What functions or services does it
provide? Who will have access to the new medium? How much will it cost?
Phase 2 research begins once the medium is developed. In this phase, specific
information is accumulated about the uses and the users of the medium. How do
people use the medium in real life? Do they use it for information only, to save
time, for entertainment, or for some other reason? Do children use it? Do adults
use it? Why? What gratifications does the new medium provide? What other
types of information and entertainment does the new medium replace? Were
original projections about the use of the medium correct? What uses are evident
other than those that were predicted from initial research?

Phase 3 includes investigations of the social, psychological, and physical

effects of the medium. How much time do people spend with the medium? Does
it change people’s perspectives about anything? What do the users of the
medium want and expect to hear or see? Are there any harmful effects related to
using the medium? In what way, if any, does the medium help people? Can the
medium be combined with other media or technology to make it even more
useful?

In Phase 4, research is conducted to determine how the medium can be

improved, either in its use or through technological developments. Can the
medium provide information or entertainment to more types of people? How
can new technology be used to perfect or enhance the sight and/or sound of the
medium? Is there a way to change the content to be more valuable or
entertaining?

The design of Figure 1.1 is not intended to suggest that the research phases are
linear— that when a phase is over, it is never considered again. In reality, once
a medium is developed and established, research may be conducted
simultaneously in all four phases. For example, although television has been
around for decades, researchers continue to investigate the medium itself
(satellite-delivered digital audio and video), the uses of TV (pay-per-view
programming, TV on computers and handheld devices), effects (violent
programming), and improvements (plasma TV). Research is a never-ending
process. In most instances, a research project designed to answer one series of
questions produces a new set of questions no one thought of before. This failure
to reach closure may be troublesome to some people, but it is the essential
nature of research.

At least four major events or social forces have encouraged the growth of mass
media research. The first was World War I, which prompted a need to
understand the nature of propaganda.

A second contributor to the development of mass media research was the

realization by advertisers in the 1950s and 1960s that research data are useful in
developing ways to persuade potential customers to buy products and services.
Consequently, advertisers encouraged studies of message effectiveness,
audience demographics and size, placement of advertising to achieve the highest
level of exposure (efficiency), frequency of advertising necessary to persuade
potential customers, and selection of the medium that offered the best chance of
reaching the target audience.

A third contributing social force was the increasing interest of citizens in the
effects of the media on the public, especially on children. The direct result was
an interest in research related to violence and sexual content in television
programs and in commercials aired during children’s programs. Researchers
have expanded their focus to include the positive (prosocial) as well as the
negative (antisocial) effects of television. Investigating violence on television is
still an important endeavor, and new research is published every year.

Modern mass media research includes a variety of psychological and

sociological investigations, such as physiological and emotional responses to
television programs, commercials, or music played on radio stations. In
addition, computer modeling and other sophisticated computer analyses are now
commonplace in media research to determine such things as the potential
success of television programs.

[Ref. WIMMER, R. D. & DOMINICK, J. R. (9th edition), MASS MEDIA RESEARCH An

Introduction. Page: 6-9]

The Methods of Knowing

There are several possible approaches in answering research questions.

Kerlinger and Lee (2000), using definitions provided nearly a century ago by C.
S. Peirce, discuss four approaches to finding answers, or methods of knowing
these are tenacity, intuition, authority, and science.

A user of the method of tenacity follows the logic that something is true because
it has always been true. An example is the storeowner who says, “I don’t
advertise because my parents did not believe in advertising.” The idea is that
nothing changes—what was good, bad, or successful before will continue to be
so in the future.

In the method of intuition, or the a priori approach, a person assumes that

something is true because it is “self-evident” or “stands to reason.” Some
creative people in advertising agencies resist efforts to test their advertising
methods because they believe they know what will attract customers.

The method of authority promotes a belief in something because a trusted

source, such as a parent, a news correspondent, or a teacher, says it is true. The
emphasis is on the source, not on the methods the source may have used to gain
the information. For example, the claim that “consumers will spend money to
receive news updates via fax machine because producers of the information say
so” is based on the method of authority.
The scientific method approaches learning as a series of small steps. That is,
one study or one source provides only an indication of what may or may not be
true; the “truth” is found only through a series of objective analyses. This means
that the scientific method is self-correcting in that changes in thought or theory
are appropriate when errors in previous research are uncovered. For example, in
1984 Barry Marshall, a medical resident in Perth, Australia, identified a
bacterium (Helicobacter pylori or H. pylori) as the cause of stomach ulcers (not
an increase in stomach acid due to stress or anxiety). After several years,
hundreds of independent studies proved that Marshall was correct, and in 1996,
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a combination of
drugs to fight ulcers—an antacid and an antibiotic.

[Ref. WIMMER, R. D. & DOMINICK, J. R. (9th edition), MASS MEDIA RESEARCH An

Introduction. Page: 10-11]

Characteristics of the Scientific Method

Five basic characteristics, or tenets, distinguish the scientific method from other
methods of knowing. These are in the following:

1. Scientific research is public

Advances in science require freely available information. Researchers

(especially in the academic sector) cannot plead private knowledge, methods, or
data in arguing for the accuracy of their findings; scientific research information
must be freely communicated from one researcher to another. As Nunnally and
Bernstein (1994) note: Science is a highly public enterprise in which efficient
communication among scientists is essential. Each scientist builds on what has
been learned in the past; day-by-day his or her findings must be compared with
those of other scientists working on the same types of problems.
Researchers therefore must take great care in their published reports to include
information on sampling methods, measurements, and data-gathering
procedures.

2. Science is objective

Science tries to rule out eccentricities of judgment by researchers. When a study

is conducted, explicit rules and procedures are developed and the researcher is
bound to follow them, letting the chips fall where they may.

Objectivity also requires that scientific research deal with facts rather than
interpretations of facts. Science rejects its own authorities if statements conflict
with direct observation.

3. Science is empirical

Researchers are concerned with a world that is knowable and potentially

measurable. (Empiricism comes from the Greek word for “experience.”)
Researchers must be able to perceive and classify what they study and reject
metaphysical and nonsensical explanations of events. For example, scientists
would reject a newspaper publisher’s claim that declining subscription rates are
“God’s will” because such a statement cannot be perceived, classified, or
measured.

4. Science is systematic and cumulative

No single research study stands alone, nor does it rise or fall by itself. Astute
researchers always use previous studies as building blocks for their own work.
One of the first steps in conducting research is to review the available scientific
literature on the topic so that the current study will draw on the heritage of past
research. This review is valuable for identifying problem areas and important
factors that might be relevant to the current study.
5. Science is predictive

Science is concerned with relating the present to the future. In fact, scientists
strive to develop theories because, among other reasons, they are useful in
predicting behavior. A theory’s adequacy lies in its ability to predict a
phenomenon or event successfully
successfully.

[Ref. WIMMER, R. D. & DOMINICK, J. R. (9th edition), MASS MEDIA RESEARCH An

Introduction. Page: 11-13]

Research Procedures

The purpose of the scientific method of research is to provide an objective,

unbiased collection and evaluation of data. To investigate research questions
and hypotheses systematically, both academic and private sector researchers
follow a basic eight-step
step procedure. These steps are in the following:

Selection of problem

Review of existing research and theory

Statement of hypothesis or research question

Determination of appropriate methodology and research design

Data collection

Analysis and interpretation of data

Presentation of results

Replication

Fig. Steps in the Development of a Research Project

The descriptions of these are given below:

 Selecting a Research Topic

Not all researchers are concerned with selecting a topic to study; some are able
to choose and concentrate on a research area that is interesting to them. Many
researchers come to be identified with studies of specific types, such as those
concerning children and media violence, newspaper readership, advertising, or
communications law. These researchers investigate small pieces of a puzzle to
obtain a broad picture of their research area.

Selecting a topic is a concern for many beginning researchers, however,

especially those writing term papers, theses, and dissertations. The problem
knows where to start. Fortunately, many sources are available for research
topics; academic journals, periodicals, newsweeklies, and everyday encounters
provide a wealth of ideas. This section highlights some primary sources.

Professional Journals

Academic communication journals, such as the Journal of Broadcasting and

Electronic Media, Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, and others
listed in this section, are excellent sources of information.

In addition, some journal editors build issues around specific research themes,
which often can help in formulating research plans. Many high-quality journals
cover various aspects of research; some specialize in mass media, and others
include media research occasionally.

Research abstracts, located in most college and university libraries, are also
valuable sources for research topics.

Magazines and Periodicals

More and more articles written by highly trained communications professionals
appear in weekly and monthly publications such as Time and Newsweek.

Research Summaries

Professional research organizations periodically publish summaries that provide

a close look at the major research areas in various fields. These summaries are
often useful for obtaining information about research topics because they survey
a wide variety of studies.

The Internet

The Internet brings the world to a researcher’s fingertips and must be

considered whenever the goal is to find a topic to investigate. Search engines
make it easy to find information on almost any topic.

Everyday Situations

Each day people are confronted with various types of communication via radio,
television, newspapers, magazines, movies, personal discussions, and so on.
These are excellent sources for researchers who take an active role in analyzing
them.

Archive Data

Archive data is also an important source for searching research topic.

 Literature Review

Researchers who conduct studies under the guidelines of scientific research

never begin a research project without first consulting available literature to
learn what has been done, how it was done, and what results were found.
Experienced researchers consider the literature review to be one of the most
important steps in the research process.
Before they attempt any project, researchers should ask these questions:

• What type of research has been done in the area?

• What has been found in previous studies?

• What suggestions do other researchers make for further study?

• What has not been investigated?

• How can the proposed study add to our knowledge of the area?

• What research methods were used in previous studies?

Answers to these questions will usually help define a specific hypothesis or

research question.

 Stating a Hypothesis or Research Question

After identifying a general research area and reviewing the existing literature,
the researcher must state the problem as a workable hypothesis or research
question.

A hypothesis is a formal statement regarding the relationship between variables

and is tested directly. The predicted relationship between the variables is either
true or false.

On the other hand, a research question is a formally stated question intended to

provide indications about something; it is not limited to investigating
relationships between variables.

 Determination of Appropriate Methodology And Research Design

Research methodology is the path through which researchers need to conduct
their research. It shows the path through which these researchers formulate their
problem and objective and present their result from the data obtained during the
study period.

Methodology section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall

validity and reliability. The methodology section answers two main questions:
How was the data collected or generated? How was it analyzed?

Research method can be various types. In general classification research

methods can be broadly divided into two. These are
quantitative and qualitative method. Researcher need to determine appropriate
methodology.

A research design is the set of methods and procedures used in collecting and
analyzing measures of the variables specified in the problem research. The
design of a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlation, semi-
experimental, experimental, review, meta-analytic) and sub-type (e.g.,
descriptive-longitudinal case study), research problem, hypotheses, independent
and dependent variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection
methods and a statistical analysis plan. A research design is a framework that
has been created to find answers to research questions.

 Data collection

Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant

sources to find answers to the research problem.

Data collection methods can be divided into two categories: secondary methods
of data collection and primary methods of data collection.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary data is a type of data that has already been published. To collect the
secondary information researcher will be searched

 Journal
 Thesis work
 Newspaper
 Unpublished material
 Relevant books
 Magazines
 Online portals etc.

Primary Data Collection Methods

Primary data collection methods can be divided into two groups: quantitative
and qualitative.

Quantitative data collection methods are based in mathematical calculations in

various formats. Methods of quantitative data collection and analysis include
questionnaires with closed-ended questions, methods of correlation and
regression, mean, mode and median and others.
Qualitative research methods, on the contrary, do not involve numbers or
mathematical calculations. Qualitative research is closely associated with
words, sounds, feeling, emotions, colors and other elements that are non-
quantifiable.

 Data Analysis and Interpretation

Data analysis refers how to process data to get the result. For the analysis
Microsoft word, Microsoft excels and SPSS software can be used. The time
and effort required for data analysis and interpretation depend on the study’s
purpose and the methodology used. Analysis and interpretation may take from
several days to several months. In many private sector research studies
involving only a single question, data analysis and interpretation may be
completed in a few minutes. For example, a radio station may be interested in
finding out its listeners’ perceptions of the morning show team. After a survey
is conducted, that question may be answered by summarizing only one or two
items on the questionnaire.

 Presenting Results

The format used to present results depends on the purpose of the study.
Research intended for publication in academic journals follows a format
prescribed by each journal; research conducted for management in the private
sector tends to be reported in simpler terms, often excluding detailed
explanations of sampling, methodology, and review of literature. However, all
results must be presented in a clear and concise manner appropriate to both the
research question and the individuals who will read the report.

 Replication

Lykken (1968) and Kelly, Chase, and Tucker (1979) identify four basic types of
replication that can be used to help validate a scientific test:

1. Literal replication involves the exact duplication of a previous analysis,

including the sampling procedures, experimental conditions, measuring
techniques, and methods of data analysis.

2. Operational replication attempts to duplicate only the sampling and

experimental procedures of a previous analysis, to test whether the procedures
will produce similar results.
3. Instrumental replication attempts to duplicate the dependent measures used
in a previous study and to vary the experimental conditions of the original
study.

4. Constructive replication tests the validity of methods used previously by

deliberately not imitating the earlier study; both the manipulations and the
measures differ from those used in the first study.

[Ref. WIMMER, R. D. & DOMINICK, J. R. (9th edition), MASS MEDIA RESEARCH An

Introduction. Page: 14-32]

Conclusion

Media research evolved from the fields of psychology and sociology and is now
a well-established field in its own right. It is not necessary to be a statistician to
be a successful researcher; it is more important to know how to conduct
research and what research procedures can do.

Md. Sajjat Hossain

Mass Communication and Journalism (3rd Batch)

Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur