Unit I

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
CAD Hardware and Software
CAD hardware:
 Includes the computer, one or more graphical display terminals,
keyboard and other peripheral equipment.
 In CAD, the drawing boards are replaced by electronic input and
output devices, an electronic plotter, mass storage, an archival
storage device, a tape reader, printer, card reader, and hard copy
unit, as shown in Figure:
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CAD software:
 CAD software consists of
(i) system software and
(ii) application software.
(i) System software:

 It is used to perform/control the operation of the computer.
 Responsible for making the hardware components to work and interact
with each others and the end user.
 Examples of system software are the operating systems, all kinds of
hardware drivers, compilers and interpreters.
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(ii) Application software:
 It is also known as application programs,

 It is used for general or customised/specialized problems.
 Examples of application software are AutoCAD, Solid works, Pro-E, ANSYS,
ADAMS, etc.
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Advantages of an Application Software
 Increased design productivity.

 Shorter lead time.
 Flexibility in design.
 Improved design analysis.
 Fewer design errors.
 Greater accuracy in design calculations
 Standardization of design, drafting and documentation procedures.
 Easier creation and correction of engineering drawings.
 Better visualization of drawings.
 Faster new products design. 5
 The benefits of CAD in manufacturing can be realised in the following
areas:
(i)Tool and fixture design.
(ii)Generation of NC (numerical control) part programming.
(iii)CAPP (computer aided process planning).
(iv)Models generated can be utilized for rapid prototyping.
(v)Computer aided inspection.
(vi)Preparation of assembly lists and bill of materials.
(vii)Group technology (in coding and classification of parts).
(viii)Robotics and materials handling equipment planning
(ix) Assembly sequence planning.
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Reasons for Implementing CAD
The four fundamental reasons for implementing a CAD system are as follows:
 To increase the productivity of the designer.

Using CAD, the designer can visualize quickly the product and its
components, subassemblies and parts.
Reduces the time required for synthesis, analysis and documentation of the
design.
Reduces product design time and cost.
 To improve the quality of design.

Design alterations can be done quickly without error.
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Reasons for Implementing CAD
 To improve communications.
Provides better documentation of the design, fewer drawing errors with
greater legibility.
 To create a database for engineering.

Design database consists of product geometries and dimensions, bill of
materials, etc. which are essential input for manufacturing of the product.
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Applications of CAD
Area Application
• Assembly layout
• New-part design
• Standard part library
Design
• Tolerance specification
• Interface and clearance specification
• Part relations in an assembly
• Interference checking
• Fit analysis
• Weight and balance
Analysis • Volume and area properties
• Structural analysis
• Kinematics analysis
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• Tolerance stacking
Applications of CAD
Area Application
• Drawing generation
• Technical illustrations
Documentation
• Bill of materials
• Image rending
• Process planning
• NC part program generation
• NC part program verification
Manufacturing • NC machine simulation
• Inspection programming
• Robot programming and verification
• Factory layout
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Applications of CAD
Area Application
• Review and release
• Engineering changes
Management • Project control and monitoring
• Selection of standard parts and assemblies
• Design standards
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Design Process in a CAD System (Elements of CAD
System)
The conventional design process has been accomplished on drawing boards
with the design being documented in the form of detailed engineering
drawing.
The conventional design process also known as Shigley model, consists of the
following six steps/phases:
1.Recognition of need
2.Identification of problem
3.Synthesis
4.Analysis and optimization
5.Evaluation
6.Presentation
In CAD, the design related tasks are performed by a modern CAD system. 12
Four Stages of CAD Design Process
Four stages or functional areas of a CAD design process are:
1.Geometric modelling.
2.Design analysis and optimization.
3.Design review and evaluation.
4.Documentation and drafting.
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 Geometric Modelling
Concerned with computer compatible mathematical description of geometry
of an object.
The mathematic description of geometry should be such that:

(i) The image of the object can be displayed and manipulated in the
computer terminals.
(ii) Modification of the geometry of the object can be done easily.
(iii) It can be stored in the computer memory.
(iv) It can be retrieved back on the computer screen for review, analysis or
alteration.
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 In geometric modelling, three types of commands are used. They are:
(i) Commands used to generate basic geometric entities like points, lines,
circles, etc.
(ii) Commands used to do manipulation work like scaling, translation,
rotation, etc.
 The models can be represented in three different ways:

(i)Wire-frame
(ii)Surface
(iii)Solid modelling
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 Design Analysis and Optimization
Once the graphic model is created, the design is subjected to engineering
analysis.
 This phase consist of analysing stresses, strains, deflections and other parameters.
 The analysis can be done either by using a specific program generated for it or by using
general purpose software commercially available in the market.
 Nowadays sophisticated packages (such as ANSYS, Pro-E, CATIA) having capabilities are
available to compute the various performance parameters accurately.
 Because of the relative ease with which such analysis can be made, designers are
increasingly willing to thoroughly analyse a design before it moves into production.
 Experiments and field measurements may be necessary to determine the effects of
loads, temperature and other variables.
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 Design Review and Evaluation
 The phase is to review and evaluate to check for any interference between various
components in order to avoid difficulties during assembly or use of the part and
whether the moving members such as linkages are going to operate as intended.
 Using the layering procedure, every stage of production can be checked; by using
animation, the working of the mechanism can be checked.
 Documentation and Drafting

 After analysis and review, the design is reproduced by automated drafting
machines for documentation and reference.
 In this phase, detailed and working drawing are developed and printed.
 Important features of automated drafting are automated dimensioning, scaling of
the drawing, development of generating sectional views, enlargement of minute
part details and ability to generate different views of the object (like
orthographic, oblique, isometric and perspective views).
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Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
 Defined as an effective use of computers and computer technology in the

planning management and control of the manufacturing function.
 The use of computers to assist in all the phases of manufacturing a

product, including process and production planning, machining,
scheduling, management and quality control.
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Applications of CAM
 The applications of CAM can be divided into two broad categories:
1.Manufacturing planning.
2.Manufacturing control.
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CAD/CAM Interface
 Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing are often

combined into CAD/CAM systems because of the benefits.
 By interfacing CAD/CAM technology, it is possible to establish a direct link

between product design and manufacturing engineering.
 The user can interact with computer through a graphics terminal to

accomplish all the design and manufacturing activities
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CAD/CAM Interface
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Elements of CAD/CAM interface
• CAD/CAM combination allows the transfer of information from the design stage
into the stage of planning for the manufacture of a product without the need to
re-enter the data on part geometry manually.
• Database developed during CAD is stored.
• It is processed further by CAM into the necessary data and instructions for
operating and controlling production machinery, material-handling equipment and
automated testing and inspection for product quality.
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CAD/CAM Vs CIM
 The scope of CAD/CAM includes design, manufacturing planning and
manufacturing control.
 Typical applications of CAD/CAM includes:
• Programming for NC, CNC and industrial robots

• Design of dies and moulds for casting
• Dies for metal working operations
• Design of tools
• Quality control and inspection
• Process planning and scheduling
• Plant layout
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CAD/CAM Vs CIM
 CIM
 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) includes all of the engineering functions of
CAD/CAM and the firm’s business functions that are related to manufacturing.
 CIM = CAD/CAM functions + Business functions
 Figure below illustrates the scope of CAD/CAM and CIM presented by Groover.
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Computer-Aided Drafting
 The process of preparing drawings with the aid of computer is known as
computer-aided drafting or computer graphics.
 The computer graphics includes the methods of making plane and
geometrical drawings . Plotting of points, drawing of lines, squares,
circles, etc. and building up of simple blocks form the computer graphics
activities in two dimensions.
 Pictorial views of a machine component, as viewed from different
directions can be obtained by using computer graphics.
 In present days the availability of sophisticated computer hardware and
computer programmes have enabled solid modelling, which is a 3D
representation of a product.
 The entire computer graphics activities integrate the analysis, design,
manufacturing and management aspects into one system that may be
called computer-aided engineering (CAE).
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Major function performed by a computer-aided
drafting system
 Basic set-up of a drawing.
 Drawing the objects.
 Changing the object properties.
 Translating the objects.
 Scaling the objects.
 Clipping the object to fit the image to the screen.
 Creating symbol libraries for frequently used objects.
 Text insertion.
 Dimensioning.
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Advantages of computer-aided drafting
 It is a fast and convenient method.
 Drawing can be stored in database.
 Changes in drawings can be done easily and quickly.
 Neat and clean drawings of good quality can be prepared.
 Accuracy can be maintained.
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Features of CAD systems
 Modelling and drafting:
 Majority of systems provide 2D and 3D modelling capabilities. Some low cost CAD systems
are dedicated to 2D drafting only.
 Ease of use:
 Users find CAD Systems very easy to learn and use.
 Flexibility:
 Popular CAD systems provide greater flexibility when configuring the available hardware.
Hundreds of computers, display devices, expansion boards, input and output devices are
compatible and configurable with popular software.
 Modularity:
 Standard input and output devices are attached to standard connectors thereby making the
system modular in nature.
 Low maintenance cost:

 Little maintenance is needed to keep the system functional.
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 Software Packages for Modelling (Popular CAD Packages).
CAD packages available for modelling
 Auto CAD
 Pro-E
 IDEAS
 Uni-graphics
 CATIA
 Solid Works
 Solid Edge
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Characteristics of a CAD Package
 According to Newman and Sproull, any graphic package should
have the following six basic characteristics.
•Simplicity
•Consistency
•Completeness
•Robustness
•Performance
•Economic
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Manufacturing Planning
 Important manufacturing planning applications include:
•Computer-aided process planning (CAPP)

•Computer-assisted NC part programming
•Computerised machinability data systems
•Development of work standards
•Cost estimation
•Production and inventory planning
•Computer-aided line balancing
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Manufacturing control
 The manufacturing control applications of CAM are concerned with
developing computer systems for implementing the manufacturing
control function.
 Is concerned with managing and controlling the physical operations
in the factory.
 Some of the manufacturing control applications include:
•Process monitoring and control

•Quality control
•Shop floor control
•Inventory control
•Just-in-time production systems
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Concurrent Engineering
 A systematic approach to the integrated, concurrent design of

products and their related processes including manufacture and
support.
 It is intended to cause the developers from the outset, to consider

all elements of the product life cycle from conception to disposal,
including quality, cost, schedule and user requirements.
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Concurrent Engineering
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Concurrent Engineering Element
 Cross-functional teams
 It Include members from various disciplines involved in the process including
manufacturing, hardware and software design, marketing and so forth.
 Concurrent product realization

 Process activities are at the heart of concurrent engineering.
 Designing various subsystems simultaneously is critical to reduce design time.
 Incremental information sharing

 As soon as new information becomes available, it is shared and integrated into the
design.
 It cross functional teams are important to the effective sharing of information in a
timely fashion.
 Integrated project management

 It ensures that someone is responsible for the entire project and that responsibility is
not abdicated once one aspect of the work is done.
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Applications of Concurrent Engineering
 The applications of concurrent engineering are as follows,
•Development and production lead times
•Measurable quality improvements
•Engineering process improvements
•Cost reduction
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1. Development and production lead times
 Product development time is reduced up to 60%.

 Production spans are reduced 10%.
 AT&T reduced the total process time for the ESS programmed digital switch by 46% in
3 years.
 ITT reduced the design cycle for an electronic countermeasures system by33% and its
transition-to-production time by 22%.
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2. Measurable quality improvements
 Field failure rates reduced up to 83%.
 AT&T achieved a fourfold reduction in variability in a poly silicon deposition process

for very large scale integrated circuits and achieved nearly two orders of magnitude
reduction in surface defects.
 AT&T reduced defects in the ESS programmed digital switch up to 87% through a
coordinated quality improvement program that included product and process design.
 Degree reduced the number of inspectors by two-thirds through emphasis on process
control and linking the design and manufacturing processes.
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3. Engineering process improvements
 Engineering changes per drawing reduced up to 15 times.

 Early production engineering changes reduced by 15%.
 Inventory items stocked reduced up to 60%.
 Engineering prototype builds reduced up to three times.
 Scrap and rework reduced up to 87%.
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4. Cost reduction
 McDonnell Douglas had a 60% reduction in life-cycle cost and 40%

reduction in production cost on a short-range missile proposal.
 Boeing reduced a bid on a mobile missile launcher and realized costs 30
to 40% below the bid.
 IBM reduced direct costs in system assembly by 50%.
 ITT saved 25% in ferrite core bonding production costs .
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CIM concepts
 It is a concept, an environment, an objective, a strategy.

 Modem technology is needed to implement/achieve the CIM
environment.
 Thus CIM is also a technology.
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Importance of CIM
Following factors have led to the development of the CIM concept and
associated technologies:
1.Development of NC, CNC and DNC.
2.The advent and cost-effectiveness of computers.
3.Manufacturing challenges, such as
Global competition
High labour cost
Demand For quality products
Flexibility To meet the orders
Lower product cost
4.The capability-to-cost attractiveness of microcomputers.
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Timeline of CIM
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Activities of CIM
1. Evaluating and developing different product strategies.
2. Analysing markets and generating forecasts.
3. Analysing product/market characteristics and generating concepts of possible

manufacturing system (i.e. FMS cells and FMS systems).
4. Designing and analysing components for machining, inspection, assembly and

all other processes relating to the nature of the component and/or product.
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Activities of CIM
5 . Evaluating and/or determining batch sizes, manufacturing capacity,
scheduling and control strategies relating to the design and fabrication
processes involved in the particular product.
6. Analysis and feedback of certain selected parameters relating to the
manufacturing processes, evaluation of status reports from the DNC system.
7. Analysing system disturbances and economic factors of the total system.
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Elements of CIM System (Various Activities of
CIM)
 CIM is a methodology and a goal rather than an assemblage of component
and computers.
 The ideal CIM system applies computer technology to all of the
operational functions and information processing functions in
manufacturing from order receipt, through design and production to
product delivery.
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CIM)
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CIM)
 At the broader level, CIM can be viewed as an integration of
• Product and process design.
• Production planning and control.
• Production process.
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CIM)
 Computer integrated manufacturing is the automated version of the

manufacturing process .
 Three major manufacturing functions are product and process design,

production planning and control and production process—are replaced by
the automated technologies CAD/CAM, CAPP and automated material
handling systems , Automated guided vehicles (AGVs ) and computerised
business systems like order entry, payroll and billing.
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CIM)
 CIM is also referred as completely automated factory with no human
interference and factory of the future.
 CIM calls for the coordinated participation in all phases of manufacturing

enterprises for the purpose of integration and supervision.
 Thus CIM includes:

 Design of parts and components
 Computer controlled flow of materials
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Computerized elements of a CIM system
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Subsystems of CIM
 CIM consists of subsystems that are integrated into a whole.
 These subsystems/elements consist of the following:
(i) Product design
(ii) Manufacturing planning
(iii) Manufacturing control
(iv) Business planning and support

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Subsystems of CIM
 Subsystems are designed, developed and applied in such a manner that

the output of one subsystem serves as the input of another system.
 These subsystems are usually divided into two functions as below:
 Business planning functions
 Business execution function
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Subsystems of CIM
 1. Business planning functions:
It Includes activities such as forecasting, scheduling, material-requirements

planning, invoicing and accounting.
 2. Business execution function:
It Includes production and process control, material handling, testing and

inspection.
 Effectiveness of CIM depends greatly on the presence of a large-scale,

integrated communications system involving computers, machines and
their controls.
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Islands of Automation
 The term 'islands of automation ’ represents the various technologies that
facilitate manufacturing automation in isolation without having integrated
with other manufacturing technologies.
 CIM represents the logical revolution of the islands of automation concept.
 As the ‘islands’ are not capable by themselves to bring out a ‘big picture’
of the entire manufacturing activities the evolution of CIM has become a
natural evolution by the integration of these ‘islands of automation’.
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 The various ‘islands of automation which by integration forms computer
integrated manufacturing, include:
1. Computer-aided design (CAD) 2. Computer-aided manufacture (CAM)
3. Computer numerically controlled (CNC) machines 4. Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS)
5. Robotics 6. Automated material handling systems (AMHS)
7. Group technology (GT) 8. Computer aided process planning (CAPP)
9. Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) 10. Computer control systems. 57

 CIM elements without mainframe computer and resulting islands of automation.
 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) through mainframe computer.
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Types of Production
 Production activity is classified according to the quantity of product made.
 In this classification there are three types of production:
• Job shop production.
• Batch production.
• Mass production.
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Job Shop Production
 Job shop production is commonly used to meet specific customer orders
and there is a great variety in the type of work the plant must do.
 Production equipment must be flexible and general purpose to allow for
this variety of work.
 Skill level of job shop workers must be relatively high so that they can
perform a range of different work assignments.
 Examples of products manufactured in a job shop include space vehicles,
aircraft, machine tools, special tools and equipment and prototypes of
future products.
 Construction work and shipbuilding are not normally identified with the
job shop category.
 Though these two activities involve the transformation of raw materials
into finished products, the work is not performed in a factory.
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Batch Production
 It involves the manufacture of medium-sized lots of the same item or
product.
 Lots may be produced only once, or they may be produced at regular
intervals.
 Purpose of batch production is often to satisfy continuous customer
demand for an item.
 Examples of items made in batch-type shops include industrial equipment,
furniture, textbooks and component parts for many assembled consumer
products (household appliances, lawn mowers, etc.).
 Batch production plants include machine shops, casting foundries, plastic
moulding factories and press working shops.
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Mass Production
 It involves continuous specialized manufacture of identical products.
 Characterized by very high production rates, equipment that is completely
dedicated to the manufacture of a particular product and very high
demand rates for the product.
 Equipment is not only dedicated to one product, but the entire plant is
often designed for the exclusive purpose of producing the particular
product.
 Equipment is special purpose rather than general-purpose.
 Investment in machines and specialized tooling is high.
 Production skill has been transferred from the operator to the machine.
 The skill level of labour in a mass production plant tends to be lower than
in a batch plant or job shop.
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Manufacturing Models and Metrics
 Production Concepts and Mathematical Models
Production rate, Rp
Production capacity, PC
Utilization, U
Availability, A
Manufacturing lead time, MLT
Work-in-progress, WIP
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 Operation Cycle Time
 Typical cycle time for a production operation:
Tc = To + Th + Tth
where, Tc = cycle time

To = processing time for the operation.
Th = handling time (e.g. loading and unloading the production
machine).
Tth = tool handling time (e.g. time to change tools).
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 Production Rate
 Batch production:
batch time Tb = Tsu + QTc
Average production time per work unit Tp = Tb / Q
Production rate, Rp = 60/ Tp (pieces/hr)
 Job shop production:

For Q = 1, Tp = Tsu + Tc
 For quantity high production:

Rp → R c = 60/ Tc since Tsu/ Q → 0
 For flow line production

Tc = Tr + Max To and R c = 60/ Tc
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 Production Capacity
Plant capacity for facility in which parts are made in one operation (no=1):
PC w = n S w Hs Rp
Where, PC w = Weekly plant capacity, units/wk
Plant capacity for facility in which parts require multiple operations (n o >1):
where n o = Number of operations in the routing.
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 Utilization and Availability
Utilization:
where Q = Quantity actually produced and PC = plant capacity
Availability:
Where, MTBF = Mean time between failures and

MTTR = mean time to repair
Availability - MTBF and MTTR Defined
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 Manufacturing Lead Time
MLT = n o ( Tsu + QTc + Tno )
Where, MLT = Manufacturing lead time

n o = Number of operations
Tsu = Setup time
Q = batch quantity, Tc cycle time per part
Tno = Non-operation time
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 Work-In-Process
Where, WIP = work-in-process, pc

A = Availability, U = utilization,
PC = plant capacity, pc/wk
MLT = Manufacturing lead time, hr
S w = shifts per week,
Hsh = hours per shift,hr/shift
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 Costs of Manufacturing Operations
 Two major categories of manufacturing costs:
1.Fixed costs - remain constant for any output level
2. Variable costs - vary in proportion to production output level
Adding fixed and variable costs
TC = FC + VC ( Q )
Where, TC = Total costs
FC = Fixed costs (e.g. building, equipment, taxes)
VC = Variable costs (e.g. labor, materials, utilities)
Q = output level.
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 Fixed and Variable Costs
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 Manufacturing Costs
 Alternative classification of manufacturing costs:
Direct labour -Wages and benefits paid to workers.
Materials - Costs of raw materials.
 Overhead - All of the other expenses associated with running the

manufacturing firm.
Factory overhead
Corporate overhead
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 Typical Manufacturing Costs
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 Overhead Rates
 Factory overhead rate:
 Corporate overhead rate:
Where, DLC = Direct labour costs

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 Cost of Equipment Usage
 Hourly cost of worker-machine system:
C o = C L(1 + FOHRL) + C m(1 + FOHRm )
Where, C o = hourly rate, S/hr.

C L = labour rate, S/hr.
FOHR L = labour factory overhead rate,
C m = machine rate, S/hr
FOHR m = machine factory overhead rate.
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Manufacturing Planning & Control System
It includes the following functionalities:
 Restate business objectives in operations management terms.
 Ensure feasibility of plans.
 Identify gaps in current resources.
 Help formulate connective action-Suppliers.
 Prioritize activities - scheduling ,Facilitate feedback.

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Production Plan
 It is the First step in the planning process.
 It is one of three high level plans namely Business Plan, Sales Plan and
Production Plan.
 Difference between sales plan and production plan is the inventory plan.
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Master Production Schedule
 A Document that defines the specific goods that specific shops will
produce in definite quantities at definite times over a short-term horizon
in accordance with the aggregate plan.
 The MPS represents an agreement between marketing and manufacturing.
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 A detailed aggregation of production plan tends to be:
• Short time horizon

• More detailed product information
• More concern over capacity
• Corporate plan
• Quasi-contract
• Updated regularly
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 MPS Problems:
• Overloaded
• Front end Loaded
• Unstable
• Incomplete
• Short Horizon
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Material Requirements Planning
 MRP Elements:
• Gross Requirements
• On-Hand Inventory
• Allocations
• Scheduled Receipts
• Net Requirements
• Planned and Order Releases
• Time-phasing
• Parent/Component
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 Advantages of MRP
•Forward looking when planning (visibility). Useful simulator.
•Provides valid, credible priorities.
•Priorities reflect actual needs, not implied needs.
•Provides mangers with control over the execution system.
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 Limitations of MRP
•Looks at materials, ignores capacity, shop floor conditions.
•Requires user discipline.
•Requires accurate information/data.
•Requires valid MPS.
•High volume production.

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Basic Elements of an Automated System
 Automation consists of three basic elements when applied to a particular
transformation process:
 Power to achieve the process and operate the system.
 Programme of instructions to direct the process.
 Control system to actuate the instructions.
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 The programme of instructions used by the automated system is the series
of controlled actions that are carried-out in the manufacturing or
assembly process.
 Parts or products are usually processed as part of a work cycle and it is

within this work cycle structure that programme steps may be defined,
hence the term work cycle programmes.
 In numerical control work cycle programmes are called part programmes.

The program of instructions can also be called software program.
 In complicated systems the work cycle consists of a number of work steps

that are repeated with no deviation from one cycle to the next.
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 An example of this work cycle can be drawn from discrete-part
manufacturing operation systems and consists of the following steps:
NUMLIST
 Load part into production machine.
 Perform process.
 Unload part from production machine.
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ENDLIST
 At each & every step, process parameters are being changed. A process
parameters are inputs to the process, such as the initial process settings.
 Process parameters can be distinguished from process variables which are
outputs from the process—these include actual process settings as the
process is being performed.
 Different process parameters may be changed in each step.
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Levels of Automation
 There are various levels at which automation can be applied in the
context of the enterprise.
 A temperature sensor that feedback information to a regular in a shower

is a reasonably low level of automation.
 On the other hand a high level automation system is required to run a

train system in a city.
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Five Level and Description:
 Device level:
The lowest level, it includes hardware components that comprise the
machine level, such as actuators and sensors. Control loop devices are
predominant here.
 Machine level :
Hardware at the device level is assembled into individual machines.
Control functions at this level include performing the sequence of steps in
the programme of instructions.
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Cell or system level :
This operates under instructions from the plant level. Consists of a group of
machines or workstations connected and supported by a material handling system,
computers and other appropriate equipment, including production lines.
Plant level:
Factory or production systems level, it receives instruction from the
corporate information system and translates them into operational plans for
production.
Enterprise level :
The highest level, it consists of the corporate information system and is
concerned with all the functions that are necessary to manage and coordinate the
entire company.
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Lean Production
 It is also known as lean manufacturing. Also called as the Toyota

Production System (TPS), as the concept was originated at Toyota
motors.
 It is Defined as an adoption of mass production in which workers and work

cells are made more flexible and efficient by adopting methods that
reduce waste in all forms.
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Objectives of Lean Production
 The main benefits of lean production are lower production costs,
increased output and shorter production lead times.
Some of the objectives of lean production are as follows.
 To reduce defects and unnecessary physical wastage, including excess

use of raw material inputs, preventable defects, costs associated with
reprocessing defective items.
 To reduce manufacturing lead times and production cycle times by

reducing waiting times between processing stages.
93
 To minimize inventory levels at all stages of production, particularly
works-in-progress between production stages.
 To improve labour productivity both by reducing the idle time of

workers and ensuring that when workers are working they are using
their effort as productively as possible.
 To use equipment and manufacturing space more efficiently by

eliminating bottlenecks and maximizing the rate of production through
existing equipment, while minimizing machine downtime.
94
 To have the ability to produce a more flexible range of products with

minimum changeover costs and change over time.
 Due to reduced cycle times, increased labour productivity and

elimination of bottlenecks and machine downtime, companies can
significantly increase the output from their existing facilities.
95
Key Principles of Lean Manufacturing
Key principles behind lean manufacturing can be summarized as follows:
 Recognition of waste:
The first step is to recognize what does not create value from the
customers perspective. Any material process or feature which is not
required for creating value from the customers perspective is waste and
should be eliminated.
 Standard processes:
Lean requires the implementation of very detailed production
guidelines called standard work, which clearly state the content,
sequence, timing and outcome of all actions by workers. This eliminates
variation in the way that workers perform their tasks.
96
 Continuous flow:
Lean usually aims for the implementation of a continuous
production flow free of bottlenecks, interruption, detours, back flows or
waiting.
 Pull-production:
Also called Just-In-Time (JIT), pull-production aims to produce
only what is needed, when it is needed. Production is pulled by the
downstream workstation so that each workstation should only produce
what is requested by the next workstation.
97
 Quality at the source:

Lean aims for defects to be eliminated at the source and for
quality inspection to be done by the workers as part of the in-line
production process.
 Continuous improvement:
Lean requires striving for perfection by continually removing
layers of waste as they are uncovered. This in turn requires a high level of
worker involvement in the continuous improvement process.
98
Just-In-Time Production Systems
 It is a management philosophy that strives to eliminate sources of
manufacturing waste by producing the right part in the right place at
the right time.
 It is also known as stockless production. Improves profits and return on

investment by:
 Reducing inventory levels.

 Reducing variability.
 Improving product quality.
 Reducing production and delivery lead times.
 Reducing others costs such as machine setup cost and equipment breakdown cost.
99
Objectives of JIT
 The JIT is applied to achieve the following goals:
1) Zero defects
2) Zero setup time
3) Zero inventories
4) Zero handling
5) Zero breakdowns
6) Zero lead time
7) Lot size of one.
100
Elements of JIT
Some of he key elements of the JIT philosophy are:
 The Reduce or eliminate Setup times

 The Reduce manufacturing and purchasing lot sizes
 The Reduce production and delivery lead times
 The Preventive maintenance
 The Stabilize and level the production schedule with uniform plant
loading
 The Flexible workforce
 The Require supplier quality assurance and implement a zero defects
quality program
 The Small unit (single unit) conveyance
101
Kanban Production Control System
 Kanban means ‘sign’ or ‘instruction card’ in Japanese.
 Kanban is a card that is attached to a storage and transport container.
 Identifies the part number and container capacity, along with other
information.
102
Kanban Production Control System
 Kanban means ‘sign’ or ‘instruction card’ in Japanese.
 Kanban is a card that is attached to a storage and transport container.
 Identifies the part number and container capacity, along with other
information.
Two Main Types of Kanban

 1.Production Kanban (P-Kanban): Signals the need to produce more parts.
 2.Transport or Conveyance Kanban (T-Kanban): Signals the need to deliver more

parts to the next work centre. T-Kanban is also called as ‘more Kanban’ or
‘withdrawal Kanban'.
103
Pull Vs Push Systems
 A Kanban system is a pull system, in which the Kanban is used to pull
parts to the next production stage when they are needed. Here
product is made-to-order.
 A MRP system (or any schedule based system) is a push system in which
a detailed production schedule for each part is used to push parts to
the next production stage when scheduled. In a push system the
product is made-to-stock.
 A weakness of a push system over a pull system is excess inventory,

longer load time and more room for error.
104
Benefits of JIT
 JIT implementation leads to the following benefits:
•Lower inventory cost.

•Lower scrap and waste costs.
•Improved quality and zero defect products.
•Improved worker involvement.
•Higher motivation and morale.
•Increased productivity.
•Reduced manufacturing lead time.
•Improved product design and increased product flexibility.
•Adherence to delivery time.
105
UNIT II
PRODUCTION PLANNING AND
CONTROL AND COMPUTERISED
PROCESS PLANNING
Process Planning
2
 Product design for each product has been developed in the design
department.
 To convert the product design into a product, a manufacturing plan is

required. Activity of developing such a plan is called process planning.
 Process planning consists of preparing sets of instructions that describe

how to manufacture the product and its parts.
Process Planning
3
 The task of process planning consists of determining the manufacturing

operations required to transform a part from a rough (raw material) to
the finished state specified on the engineering drawing.
 Also known as operations planning.
 It is the systematic determination of the engineering processes and
systems to manufacture a product competitively and economically.
 It is a detailed specification which lists the operations, tools and
facilities.
 It is usually accomplished in manufacturing department.
Process Planning Definition
4
 It Can be defined as “an act of preparing a detailed processing

documentation for the manufacture of a piece part or assembly.”
According to the American Society of Tool and Manufacturing
Engineers.
 Process planning is the systematic determination of the methods by

which a product is to be manufactured economically and
competitively.
 It Consists of devising, selecting and specifying processes, machine

tools and other equipment, transform the raw material into finished
product as per the specifications called for by the drawings.
Process Planning Vs Product Planning
5
Process planning
 It is Concerned with the engineering and technological issues of how to

make the product and its parts.
 It specifies types of equipment and tooling required to fabricate the parts

and assemble the product.
Production planning
 It is concerned with the logistics issues of making the product.
 It is concerned with ordering the materials and obtaining the resources

required to make the product in sufficient quantities to satisfy demand for
it.
 Production is done only after the process planning.
Importance of Process Planning
6
 Process planning establishes the link between engineering design and
shop floor manufacturing.
 It Determines how a part/product will be manufactured, the important

determinant of production costs and profitability.
 Production process plans should be based on in-depth knowledge of

process and equipment capabilities, tooling availability, material
processing characteristics, related costs and shop practices.
 Economic future of the industry demands that process plans that are
developed should be feasible low cost and consistent with plans for similar
parts.
 Process planning facilitates the feedback from the shop floor to design
engineering regarding the manufacturing ability of alternative.
Details of a Process Plan
7
 Detailed process plan usually contains the route, processes, process

parameters and machine and tool selections.
 To prepare a process plan (also called as route. sheet), we require the

following information:
1. Assembly and component drawings and bill of materials (part list):
 This detail give the information regarding the general description of

part to be manufactured, raw material specification, dimensions and
tolerances required, the surface finish and treatment required.
8
2.Machine and equipment details:

 (i)The various possible operations that can be performed.
 (ii) The maximum and minimum dimensions that can be machined on

the machines.
 (iii) The accuracy of the dimensions that can be obtained.
 (iv)Available feeds and speeds on the machine.
3.Standard time for each operation and details of setup time for each job.
9
4.Availability of machines, equipment and tools.

Process Planning Activities
10
The different steps or specific activities involved in process planning are:
 Analysis of the finished part requirements as specified in the

engineering design.
 Determining the sequence of operations required.
 Selecting the proper equipment to accomplish the required
operations.
 Calculating the specific operation setup times and cycle times on
each machine.
 Documenting the established process plans.
 Communicating the manufacturing knowledge to the shop floor.
11
 The above process planning activities are diagrammatically presented
in figure.
12
1) Analyse Finished Part Requirements
 First step in the process planning is to analyse the finished part

requirements as specified in the engineering design.
 Engineering design may be shown either on an engineering drawing or in

a CAD model format.
 Component drawing should be analysed in detail to identify its features,

dimensions and tolerance specifications.
 Part’s requirement defined by its feature, dimensions and tolerance

specifications determines the corresponding processing requirements
(such as operations encompassing part shape generation, inspections,
testing, heat treatment, surface coating, packaging, etc.)
13
2) Determine Operating Sequence
 Second step is to determine the sequence of operations required to

transform the features, dimensions and tolerances on the part from a
rough (initial) to a finished state.
 Basic aim of this step is to determine the type of processing operation

that has the capability to generate the various types of features, given
the tolerance requirements.
14
3) Select "Machines"
 Once the appropriate type of manufacturing process has been

determined, the next step in process planning is to select appropriate
machines equipment and tools to accomplish the required operations.
 There are many factors which influence the selection of machines.

15
The following considerations are to be made while selecting a machine:
(i) Economic considerations: Due analysis should be made with respect to the initial cost,
maintenance and running cost. An alternative which results in lower total cost should be
selected.
(ii) Production rate and unit cost of production.
(iii) Durability and dependability.
(iv) Lower process rejection.
(v) Minimum set up and put away times.
(vi) Longer productive life of machines or equipment.
(vii) Functional versatility i.e. ability to perform more than one functions.
16
4) Material Selection Parameters

 Selection of a sound, economic material is an another important
aspect of process planning.
Primary parameters affecting the choice of a material are given below:
 Function : Many of the parameters developed for material selection

are related to the functions the product must perform in terms of
mechanical, physical, electrical and thermal properties of materials.
 Appearance: The aesthetic value of the material must be considered

while selecting the material.
17
 Reliability : Important criterion for material selection because of

increasing consumer demands for trouble free products.
 Service life: The length of service life over which the material maintains
its desirable characteristics is a very important consideration in
material selection.
 Environment: The environment to which the material is exposed during

the product life is a very important consideration, depending on
whether the environment is beneficial or harmful.
18
5) Calculate Processing Times
 After an appropriate set of required machines is selected, next step is

to calculate the specific operation setup times and cycle times on
each machine.
 Determination of setup times requires knowledge of available tooling

and the sequence of steps necessary to prepare the machine for
processing the given work piece.
 For establishing accurate setup times, detailed knowledge of

equipment capability, tooling and shop practice is required.
19
6) Document Process Planning
 Having selected the best processing alternatives and associated

machines, the next step in process planning is to document clearly all the
information in detail.
 Resulting process plan is generally documented as a job routing or

operation sheet.
 Operation sheet is also called “route sheet”, “instruction sheet”, “traveller”

or “planner”.
 Route sheet lists the production operations and associated machine tools
for each component and sub assembly of the product.
Manual Process Planning
20
 In traditional process planning systems the process plan is prepared

manually.
 It involves examining and interpreting engineering drawings, making

decisions on machining processes selection, equipment selection,
operations sequence and shop practices.
 The manual process plan is very much dependent on the skill,

judgement and experience of the process planner.
 If different planners were asked to develop a process plan for the

same part, they would probably come up with different plans.
Advantages of Manual Process Planning
21
 Manual process planning is very much suitable for small scale

companies with few process plans to generate.
 Highly flexible.
 Requires low investment costs.

Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
22
 To overcome the drawbacks of manual process planning, the

computer- aided process planning (CAPP) is used. With the use of
computers in the process planning, one can reduce the routine
clerical work of manufacturing engineers.
 It provides the opportunity to generate, rational consistent and

optimal plans. In addition CAPP provides the interface between CAD
and CAM.
Benefits of CAPP
23
The benefits of implementing CAPP include the following:
 Process rationalization and standardization: CAPP leads to more logical

and consistent process plans than manual process planning.
 Productivity improvement: As a result of standard process plan, the

productivity is improved.
 Product cost reduction: Standard plans tend to result in lower

manufacturing costs and higher product quality.
 Elimination of human error.
 Reduction in time: As a result of computerised work, a job that used to

take several days, is now done in a few minutes.
Benefits of CAPP
24
 Reduced clerical effort and paper work
 Improved legibility: Computer-prepared route sheets are neater and

easier to read than manually prepared route sheets.
 Faster response to engineering changes: Since the logic is stored in the

memory of the computer, CAPP becomes more responsive to any
changes in the production parameters than the manual method of
process planning.
 Incorporation of other application programs : The CAPP program can

be interfaced with other application programs, such as cost estimating
and work standards.
Approaches of CAPP
25
The two basic approaches or types of CAPP system are:
1. Retrieval (or variant) CAPP system.
2. Generative CAPP system.
 A CAPP tool can be represented as having three separate functions:
(i) Retrieval
(ii) Technological analysis
(iii) Computational
Approaches of CAPP
26
CAPP System for Engineering Data
27
Retrieval (or Variant) CAPP System
28
 It is also called a variant CAPP system and has been widely used in
machining applications.
 Basic idea behind the retrieval CAPP is that similar parts will have
similar process plans.
 A process plan for a new part is created by recalling, identifying and

retrieving an existing plan for a similar part and making the necessary
modifications for the new part.
 Variant CAPP is a computer-assisted extension of the manual

approach.
Advantages of Retrieval CAPP System
29
 Once a standard plan has been written, a variety of parts can be

planned.
 Comparatively simple programming and installation (compared with
generative CAPP systems) is required to implement a planning system.
 Efficient processing and evaluation of complicated activities and
decisions, thus reducing the time and labour requirements.
 Standardized procedures by structuring manufacturing knowledge of
the process planners to company’s needs.
 Lower development and hardware costs.
 Shorter development times.
 The system is understandable and the planner has control of the final
plan.
 It is easy to learn and easy to use.
Disadvantages of Retrieval CAPP System
30
 The components to be planned are limited to similar components

previously planned.
 Maintaining consistency in editing is difficult.
 Experienced process planners are still required to modify the standard

plan for the specific component.
Components of a Generative CAPP
31
System
The various components of a generative system are:
 A part description, which identifies a series of component

characteristics, including geometric features, dimensions, tolerances
and surface condition.
 A subsystem to define the machining parameters, for example using

look-up tables and analytical results for cutting parameters.
 A database of available machines and tooling.
 A report generator which prepares the process plan report.

Structure of a Generative CAPP System
32
Advantages of Generative CAPP System
33
The generative CAPP has the following advantages:
 It can generate consistent process plans rapidly.
 New components can be planned as easily as existing components.
 It has potential for integrating with an automated manufacturing facility

to provide detailed control information.
Drawbacks of Generative CAPP System
34
 The generative approach is complex.
 It is very difficult to develop.

CMPP Process Planning Functions
35
The CMPP system can perform the following four process planning
functions:
 CMPP generates a sequence of operations in a summary format.
 The summary format contains for each operation an operation, number

and description, type of machine orientation of the work piece on the
machine, surfaces cut and heat treatment.
 CMPP determines the dimensioning reference surfaces for each cut in

each operation. CMPP selects the clamping and locating surfaces.
 CMPP determines machining dimensions, tolerances and stock removals

for each surface cut in each operation.
36
CMPP produces three process plan documents:
(i) A printed summary of operations.
(ii) A printed tolerance analysis
(iii) Dimensional work piece sketches for each machining operation.

37
Even though the CMPP system has received limited use in the industrial
environment, the CMPP system is considered very significant because of
the following three reasons:
(i) CMPP represent one of the most successful attempts at developing a

generative system.
(ii) CMPP achieves a higher degree of automated process planning.
(iii) CMPP is being used as a basis for further search into automated
process planning.
Selection of a CAPP System
38
 Evaluation and selection of the best process planning system for a

particular firm involves numerous engineering management decisions.
 Process involves identifying, weighing and comparing various

interrelated factors.
Logical Steps in Computer Aided Process
39
Planning
Step 1: Define the coding scheme
 Adopt existing coding or classification schemes to label parts for the

purpose of classification. In some extreme cases, a new coding scheme
may be developed.
Step 2: Group the parts into part families
 Group the part families using the coding scheme defined in Step 1
based on some common part features. A standard process plan is
attached to each part family (see: Step 3).
 Often, a number of part types are associated with a family, thereby
reducing the total number of standard process plans.
Logical Steps in Computer Aided Process
40
Planning
Step 3: Develop a standard process plan
 Develop a standard process plan for each part family based on the
common features of the part types.
 This process plan can be used for every part type within the family with
suitable modifications.
Step 4: Retrieve and modify the standard plan
 When a new part enters the system, it is assigned to a part family based
on the coding and classification scheme.
 Then the corresponding standard process plan is retrieved and modified
to accommodate the unique features of the new part.
Retrieval CAPP System Procedure
41
Aggregate Production Planning and the
42
Aggregate Production Planning
 Aggregate planning is concerned with determining the quantity and

timing of production for the intermediate future (often 3 to 8 months)
ahead, setting employment, inventory and subcontracting.
 Aggregate plans should be coordinated among various functions in the

firm, including product design, production, marketing and sales.
43
 The aggregate production planning strategy provides the data to plan

the variable resources, which include full and temporary employment
levels, total labour hours per period and number of subcontractors.
 In addition, the aggregate production plan, along with forecasted

customer demand, provides the aggregate information from which the
disaggregate master production schedule (MPS) is produced.
44
45
 The aggregate production plan must be converted into master production

schedule (MPS).
 Master production schedule is a listing of the products to be manufactured,

when they are to be delivered and in what quantities.
 Aggregate plan lists the production quantities of the major product lines,
whereas MPS provides a very specific schedule of individual products.
 Usually MPS is developed from customer orders and forecasts of future

demand.
Basic Characteristics of MRP
46
 Two basic characteristics of MRP are:
1. Drives demand for components, sub assemblies, materials, etc. from

demand for and production schedules of parent items.
2. Offsets replenishment orders (purchase orders or production schedules)

relative to the date when replenishment is needed.
Information Needed for MRP
47
The following information are needed for MRP:
 Demand for all products.
 Lead times for all finished goods, components, parts and raw materials.
 Lot sizing policies for all parts.
 Opening inventory levels.
 Safety stock requirements.
 Any orders previously placed but which haven’t arrived yet.

Inputs to MRP
48
The three important inputs to MRP are:
1.Master production schedule,
2.Bill of materials file and
3.Inventory record file.

Inputs to MRP
49
Master Production Schedule (MPS)
50
 It is a detailed plan that states how many end items (i.e. the final
product to be sold to the customer) will be available for sale or
distribution during specific periods.
Purpose of the master production schedule:
(i) To set due dates for the availability of end items.
(ii) To provide information regarding resources and materials required to

support the aggregate plan.
(iii) Input to MRP will set specific production schedules for parts and
components used in end items.
Master Production Schedule (MPS)
51
 Inputs to MPS:
The MPS inputs are:
1.Market requirements.
2.Production plan from aggregate planning
3.Resources available.
 MRP Output:
 It is the list of end items available every period that is feasible with
respect to demand and capacity.
Bill of Materials File
52
 Designates what items and how many of each are used to make up a
specified final product.
 Used to compute the raw material and component requirements for

end products listed in the master schedule.
 It Provides information on the product structure by listing the component

parts and subassemblies that make up each product.
Product structure
53
 Structure of an assembled product, in the form of a pyramid, can be
depicted as shown in Fig.
 It can be seen from Figure. that the product P1 is the parent of sub
assemblies SA1, SA2, and SA3. similarly SA1 is the parent of components
C1, C2 and C3, and so on.
Inventory Record File
54
 All the data related to the inventory are recorded in the inventory
record file.
 The inventory record file contains the following three segment.
(i) Item Master Data Segment

(ii) Inventory Status Segment
(iii) Subsidiary Data Segment
Working of MRP
55
 MPS provides a period-by-period list of final products required.
 BOM defines what materials and components are needed for each
product.
 Inventory record file contains information on the current and future

inventory status of each component. using these three inputs, the MRP
processor computes the number of each component and raw material
required for the given final product.
MRP Output Reports
56
Benefits of MRP
57
The various benefits of implementing MRP system are:
 Reduced inventory levels.

 Better production scheduling.
 Reduced production lead time.
 Reduced setup cost.
 Reduced product changeover cost.
 Better machine utilization.
 Improved product quality.
 Quicker response to changes in demand.
Capacity Planning
58
 It is a major business problem Dependent on the type of company and

the state of business;
 Much easier if the work load is declining.
 Simplified if the factory has been laid out, after careful simulation, for a
planned production level.
 It takes place in three phases, which need to be reviewed within CIM

systems.
 Finite capacity calculations are often optimistic, because they do not

show the effect of future work, i.e. work not yet released to the factory.
Logic Required In Capacity Planning Under
59
CIM
 The logic for detailed finite capacity planning (i.e. calculations based
on actual capacity) must include the ability to summarize the various
priority factors such as lateness on due date, important customer,
accumulated cost, into a single numeric value so that queues can be
sequenced.
Logic Required In Capacity Planning Under
60
CIM
In addition, a number of other process routines that are as follows:
 Reduction of standard inter-operation (or move) time for urgent jobs.
 Overlapping of jobs across different work centres, e.g. the first items in a
batch being heat treated while the last items are still being machined.
 Splitting of batches across identical machines,
 Use of alternative routing data, i.e. there may be different ways of

making a product that could be chosen, depending on the load at the
time on different work centres.
Control Systems
61
Shop Floor Control
 This control Manages the detailed flow of materials inside the
production facility.
 It Encompasses the principles, approaches and techniques needed to
schedule, control, measure and evaluate the effectiveness of
production operations.
 Is an activity of production control one of the activity of process
planning and control (PPC).
 To understand the significance of the shop floor control, it is essential to
have the basic knowledge of various activities of PPC and their relations
to shop floor control.
 It is defined as a system for utilizing data from the shop floor as well as
data processing files to maintain and communicate status information
on shop orders and work centre.
Shop Floor Control
62
Shop Floor Control
Shop Floor Control
63
Shop floor control (SFC) is concerned with:
(i) The release of production orders to the factory.
(ii) Monitoring and controlling the progress of the orders through the
various work centres.
(iii) Acquiring information on the status of the orders.
(iv) Shop floor control deals with managing the work-in-process.

Shop Floor Control
64
Functions of Shop Floor Control
 The major functions of shop floor control are:
1. Assigning priority of each shop order (Scheduling).
2. Maintaining work-in-process quantity information (Dispatching).
3. Conveying shop-order status information to the office (Follow up).
4. Providing actual output data for capacity control purposes.
5. Providing quantity by location by shop order for work-in-process inventory and

accounting purposes.
6. Providing measurement of efficiency, utilisation and productivity of manpower

and machines.
Shop Floor Control
65
 The functions of SFC are:
1. Scheduling
2. Dispatching and
3. Follow-up or Expediting.
Shop Floor Control
66
Phases of SFC
The three important phases of SFC are:
1.Order release
2.Order scheduling and
3.Order progress.
It Depicts the three phases and their relationship to other functions in the
production management system.
In a computer integrated manufacturing system these phases are managed

by computer software.
Shop Floor Control
67
 In a typical factory which works on manual processing of data, the

above documents move with the production order and are used to
track the progress through the shop.
 In a CIM factory, more automated methods are used to track the
progress of the production orders.
Shop Floor Control
68
i) The first input is the authorization to produce (that derives from master
schedule). This authorisation proceeds through MRP which generates work
orders with scheduling information.
(ii) The second input is the engineering and manufacturing database.
 This database contains engineering data (such as the product design,

component material specifications, bills of materials, process plans, etc.)
required to make the components and assemble the products.
 Database input provides the product structure and process planning

information needed to prepare the various documents that
accompany the order through the shop.
Shop Floor Control
69
2) Order Scheduling
 The two inputs required to the order scheduling are:
(i) The order release and
(ii) The priority control information
 It Priority control is used in production planning and control to denote

the function that maintains the appropriate levels for the various
production orders in the shop.
Shop Floor Control
70
The order scheduling module is used to solve the following two problems in
production controls:
 Machine loading: Allocating orders to work centres is known as machine

loading.
 The term shop loading is used when loading of all machines in the plant are
done.
 Job sequencing: Determining the priority in which the jobs should be

processed is termed as job sequencing.
 Each work centre will have a queue of orders waiting to be processed.

Queue problem can be solved by job sequencing.
 Priority sequencing rules, also known as dispatching rules, have been

developed to establish priorities for production orders in the plant.
Shop Floor Control
71
Some of the commonly used priority sequencing rules are presented below.
 SOT (shortest operating time ): Run the job with the shortest completion
time first, next shortest second and so on.
 Earliest due date: Run the job with the earliest due date first.
 STR (slack time remaining): This is calculated as the difference between
the time remaining before the due date minus the processing time
remaining. Orders with the STR are run first.
 STR/OP (slack time per operation): Orders with shortest STR/OP are run
first. STR/OP is calculated as follows:
 CR (critical ratio): This is calculated as the difference between the due

date and the current date divided by the number of work days
remaining. Orders with the smallest CR are run first.
Shop Floor Control
72
Some of the commonly used priority sequencing rules are presented below.
 QR (queue ratio): This is calculated as the slack time remaining in the

schedule divided by the planned remaining queue time. Orders with the
smallest QR are run first.
 FCFS (first-come, first-served): Orders are run in the order they arrive in
the department.
 LCFS (last-come, first-served): As orders arrive, they are placed on the

top of the stock and are run first.
Shop Floor Control
73
3) Order Progress
 The third and final phase of SFC is order progress phase.
 The order progress phase monitors the status of the various orders in the
plant, work-in-progress (WIP)
 Order progress collects data from shop floor and generates reports to
assist production management.
 Function of order progress module is to provide information that is useful

in managing the factory based on data collected from the factory.
Shop Floor Control
74
 Progress reports: These reports indicate the performance of the shop

during a certain time period (say, week or month in the master schedule).
 Typical information listed in these reports include how many orders were
completed during the period, how many orders that should have been
completed during the period were not completed.
 Exception reports: These reports indicate the deviations from the

production schedule (e.g. overdue jobs), and similar exception
information.
Shop Floor Control
75
The three forms of order progress reports that are presented to production
management are;
 Work order status reports : These reports indicate the current status o
each shop through the shop.
 It provides information on the current work centre where each order is

located, processing hours remaining before completion of each order,
whether the job is on-time or behind schedule and priority level.
Control Systems
76
Inventory Control
 Inventory Management:
It is defined as the scientific method of determining what to order, when to order and
how much to order and how much to stock so that costs associated with buying and
storing are optimal without interrupting production and sales.
 Inventory decisions:
There are two basic decisions to be made for every item in the inventory. They are:
(i) How much of an item to order when the inventory of that item is to be replenished?
(i.e. order quantity) and
(ii) When to replenish the inventory of that item?
The use of inventory models answer the above two questions.

Inventory Control
77
 Objective of Inventory Control
The main objectives of inventory control are:
(i) To ensure continuous supply of materials so that production should not suffer
at any time.
(ii ) To maintain the overall investment in inventory at the lowest level,

consistent with operating requirements.
(iii ) To minimize holding, replacement and shortage cost of inventories and

maximize the efficiency in production and distribution.
(iv) To keep inactive, waste, surplus, scrap and obsolete items at the minimum
level.
Inventory Control
78
 Objective of Inventory Control
(v) To supply the product, raw material, WIP, etc., to its users as per their
requirements at right time and at right price.
(vi) To ensure timely action for replenishment.
(vii) To maintain timely record of inventories of all the items and to maintain
the stock within the desired limits.
(viii) To avoid both over-stocking and under-stocking of inventory.

Inventory Control
79
 Costs Associated with Inventory (What are Inventory Costs?)
The major costs associated with procuring and holding inventories are:
1. Ordering costs
2. Carrying (or holding) costs
3. Shortage (or stock out) costs and
4. Purchase costs.
Inventory Control
80
1) Ordering costs
There are costs associated with the placement of an order for the
acquisition of inventories.
 It is Refer to the managerial and clerical costs to prepare the purchase
or production order.
 It is also known by the names procurement costs, replenishment costs
and acquisition costs.
These costs include:

(i) Costs of staff of purchase department,
(ii) Costs of stationery consumed for ordering, postage, telephone
bills, etc.
(iii) Depreciation costs and expenses for maintaining equipment
required for ordering, receiving and inspecting incoming items.
(iv) Inspection costs of incoming materials.
Inventory Control
81
2) Holding (or inventory carrying) costs
 Inventory carrying costs are the costs associated with holding a given level
of inventory on hand.
 It varies in direct proportion to the amount of holding and period of holding
the stock in stores. This cost will not occur if inventory is not carried out.
The holding costs include:

(i ) Costs for storage facilities.
(ii) Handling costs.
(iii) Depreciation, taxes and insurance.
(iv) Costs on record keeping.
(v) Losses due to pilferage, spoilage, deterioration and
obsolescence.
(vi)Opportunity cost of capital.
Inventory Control
82
3) Shortage (or stock-out) costs
When the stock of an item is depleted and there is a demand for it, then
the shortage cost will occur.
Shortage cost is the cost associated with stock-out.
The shortage costs include:

(i) Back order costs.
(ii) Loss of future sales.
(iii) Loss of customer goodwill.
(iv) Loss of profit contribution by lost sales revenue.
(iv) Extra cost associated with urgent, small quantity ordering costs.
Inventory Control
83
4) Purchase (or production) costs
 These are the costs incurred to purchase/or produce the item. This Costs
include the price paid or the labour, material and overhead charges
necessary to produce the item.
Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP-II)
84
 It Represents the natural evolution of closed-loop MRP (materials

requirements planning).
 It is an integrated information system that synchronize all aspects of the

business.
 It is Coordinates sales, purchasing, manufacturing, finance and

engineering by adopting a focal production plan and by using one
unified database to plan and update the activities in all the systems.
 MRP II consists of virtually all the functions in the PPC system (presented
in Figure) plus additional business functions that are related to
production.
85
 Important MRP II system functions include:
1.Management planning — business strategy, aggregate production planning,

master production scheduling, rough-cut capacity planning and budget
planning.
2.Customer services — sales forecasting, order entry, sales analysis and finished
goods inventory.
3.Operations planning — purchase order and work order release.
4.Operations execution — purchasing, product scheduling and control, work-in

- process inventory control, shop floor control and labour hour tracking.
5. Financial functions — cost accounting, accounts receivable, accounts

payable, general ledger and payroll.
86
Now-a-days many commercial software are available incorporating MRP II

functions with more features.
Some of them include:
 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
 Customer-Oriented Manufacturing Management Systems (COMMS)
 Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES)
 Customer-Oriented Management Systems (COMS).

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
87
 It latest step in this evolution is Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP).

 Fundamentals of ERP are the same as with MRP II.
 Predicts and balances demand and supply.
 It is an enterprise-wide set of forecasting, planning and scheduling tools.
 Links customers and suppliers into a complete supply chain, Employs
proven processes for decision-making and Coordinates sales,
marketing, operations, logistics, purchasing, finance, product
development and human resources.
 Goals include high levels of customer service, productivity, cost
reduction and inventory turnover and it provides the foundation for
effective supply chain management and e-commerce.
88
89
 Enterprise Resource Planning is a direct outgrowth and extension of
Manufacturing Resource Planning and as such includes all of MRP II’s
capabilities.
a) Applies a single set of resource planning tools across the entire

enterprise,
b) Provides real-time integration of sales, operating and financial data and
c) Connects resource planning approaches to the extended supply chain

of customers and suppliers.
 Primary purpose of implementing Enterprise Resource Planning is to run

the business, in a rapidly changing and highly competitive environment,
far better than before.
90
 The Applicability of ERP
ERP and its predecessor, MRP II, have been successfully implemented in
companies with the following characteristics:
• Make-to-stock • Make-to-order
• Design-to-order • Complex product
• Simple product • Multiple plants
• Single plant • Contract manufacturers
• Manufacturers with distribution networks • Sell direct to end users

91
ERP problems fall into these four types:
 The system itself is bad.
 The system is good, but it's set up incorrectly.
 The system is good, but it's not being used.
 The system is good, but it's being used ineffectively.

UNIT III
CELLULAR MANUFACTURING
Group Technology (GT)
• Group technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy to increase production efficiency
by grouping a variety of parts having similarities of shape, dimension and/or process
route.
• GT may be defined as a manufacturing philosophy that justifies batch production by

capitalizing on design and/or manufacturing similarities among component parts. In
batch production, the products are made in small batches and in large variety.
A.U.MEENAKSHI SUNDARESWARAN
• Every batch contains identical items but every batch is different from the others.
• For example, a plant producing many parts (say 5000 different parts) may be grouped
into several distinct families (say 20 to 25 part families). Each family possesses similar
design and manufacturing characteristics.
• This grouping philosophy results in increased manufacturing efficiencies.
2
• Efficiencies are due to reduced setup times, lower in-process inventories, better
scheduling, streamlined material flow, improved quality, improved tool control and the
use of standardized process plans.
• In many plants where GT has been implemented, the production equipment is

arranged into ‘machine groups’ (also known as ‘cells’) to facilitate work flow and parts
handling.GT is felt advantageous in the product design stage also. GT is a prerequisite
for computer integrated manufacturing.
• GT is not an automation strategy associated with either the design or the production
engineering area, Implementation of GT is a critical first step for computer-aided
process planning (CAPP) and many of the production engineering activities.
3
BENEFITS OF GT
• Group technology, when successfully implemented, offers many benefits to industries.
• GT benefits can be realised in a manufacturing organisation in the following areas;
1. Product design
2. Tooling and setups
3. Materials handling
4. Production and inventory control
5. Process planning
6. Management and employees.
4
1.Product design
• Importance of GT for product design come in cost and time savings.
• Design engineers can quickly and easily search the database for parts that either
presently exist or can be used with slight modifications, rather than issuing new part
numbers.
• Similar cost savings can be realised in the elimination of two or more identical parts
with different part numbers.
• Advantage is the standardisation of designs.
• Design features such as comer radii, tolerances, counter bores, and surface finishes can
be standardized with GT.
5
2) Tooling and Setups
• In the area of tooling, group jigs and fixtures are designed to accommodate every
member of a part family.
• Also work holding devices are designed to use special adapters in such a way that this
general fixture can accept each part family member.
• Since setup times are very short between different parts in a family, a group layout can
also result in dramatic reductions in setup times.
3) Materials Handling
• GT facilitates a group layout of the shop.
• Since machines are arranged as cells, in a group layout, the materials handling cost
can be reduced by reducing travel and facilitating increased automation.
6
4) Production and Inventory Control
• GT simplifies production and planning control.
• Complexity of the problem has been reduced from a large portion of the shop to smaller
groups of machines.
• Production scheduling is simplified to a small number of parts through the machines in
that cell.
• In addition, reduced setup times and effective materials handling result in shorter
manufacturing lead times and smaller work-in-process inventories.
7
5) Process Planning
• Concept of group technology parts, classification and coding lead to an automated

process planning system.
• Grouping parts allows an examination of the various planning/route sheets for all
members of a particular family.
• Once this has been accomplished, the same basic plans can be applied to other
members, there by optimizing the shop flow for the group.
8
Advantages of Group Technology (GT)
• GT facilitates (a) efficient retrieval of similar parts, (b) development of a database containing
effective product design data and (c) avoidance of design duplication.
• GT encourages standardization of designs, tooling, fixing and setups.
• GT facilitates (a) development of a computer-aided process planning (CAPP) system, (b) retrieval
of process plans for part families and (c) development of standard routings for part families.
• Times and costs for material handling and waiting between stages are reduced.
• Production planning and control is simplified.
• Setup time and setup cost for each job are reduced, because several jobs are grouped and
processed in sequence.
• Machining cells can reduce work-in-process inventory, resulting in shorter queues and shorter
manufacturing throughput times.
• Part and product quality are improved.
• GT facilitates better employee involvement and increases workers satisfaction.
9
Limitations of Group Technology (GT)
• Implementing GT is expensive.
• Large costs may be incurred in rearranging the plant into machine cells or groups.
• Installing a coding and classification system is very time-consuming.
• As there is no common implementation approach, the implementation of GT is often difficult.
10
Part Families
• Part family is a collection of parts which are similar either because of geometric shape and
size or because similar processing steps are required in their manufacture.
• Parts which are similar in their design characteristics (i.e. shape and geometry) are grouped
in a family referred to as a design part family.
• Parts which are similar in their manufacturing characteristics are grouped in a family
referred to as a manufacturing part family.
• Characteristics used in classifying parts are referred to as “attributes”.
11
Part Families
• The two parts are placed in the same family based on design characteristics.
• They have exactly the same shape and size.
• They differ in terms of manufacturing requirements such as tolerances, production
quantities and material.
12
Part Families
• Design part family
• Manufacturing part family
• A family of parts with similar manufacturing
process requirements but different design
attributes.
13
Part Families
Methods for Part Family Formation
• The three general methods for grouping parts into families are:
1.Visual inspection
2.Parts classification and coding system
3.Production flow analysis.
14
Visual Inspection Method
• Visual inspection method is the simplest and least expensive method.
• It involves looking at parts, photos of parts or drawings of parts and arranging them into
similar groups.
15
Parts Classification and Coding
• Coding is a systematic process of establishing an alphanumeric value for parts based on
selected part features. Classification is the grouping of parts based on code values.
• It is the most sophisticated, most difficult, most time-consuming and widely used of the
three methods.
• Here the various design and/or manufacturing attributes of a part are identified, listed and
assigned a code number.
• Though several classification and coding systems have been developed, no system has been
universally adopted. one of the reasons for this is that the information that is to be
represented in the classification and coding system will vary from one company to another
company.
16
Design and Manufacturing Attributes
• Any parts classification systems fall into one of the following three categories:
1. Systems based on part design attributes.
2. Systems based on part manufacturing attributes.
3. Systems based on both design and manufacturing attributes.
17
• Parts classified by design attributes can be coded from information on the engineering
drawing. This first category systems are useful for design retrieval and to promote design
standardization.
• In grouping of manufacturing attributes, in addition to drawing information, other

information such as operation sequence, lot size, machines used, production processes,
surface finish, etc. are also considered.
• Systems in the second category are used for computer-aided process planning, tool design
and other production related functions.
• The third category represents an attempt to combine the functions and advantages of the
other two systems into a single classification scheme..
18
Coding System Structure
• A GT code is a string of characters capturing information about an item.
• A coding scheme is a vehicle for the efficient recording, sortingand retrieval of relevant
information about objects.
• A part coding scheme consists of a sequence of symbols that identify the part’s design and/or
manufacturing attributes.
• The symbols in the code can be all numeric, all alphabetic or a combination of both types.
19
1.Hierarchical Code (or Mono code)
• Interpretation of each successive symbol depends on the value of the preceding symbols.
• Each symbol amplifies the information contained in the preceding digit, so a digit in the
code cannot be interpreted alone. Structure of these codes is like a tree in which each
symbol amplifies the information provided in the previous digit.
• Hierarchical coding system can be depicted using a tree structure as shown in Figure.
20
Merits and demerits of mono code system:
• Provides a large amount of information in a relatively small number of digits.
• This tree structure works well for designing an existing ordered structure but is more
difficult to use in classifying things that have no apparent order.
• Defining the meanings for each digit in a hierarchical system (and hence the construction) is
difficult.
• Frequently used in design departments for part retrieval.
• Their utility is limited in manufacturing departments, because it is difficult to retrieve and

analyse process-related information when it is in a hierarchical structure.
21
2) Attribute Code (or Poly code)
• In this structure, the interpretation of each symbol in the sequence does not depend on the
value of preceding symbols.
• Each digit in this code represents information in its own right and does not directly qualify
the information provided by the other digits.
• Attribute code is also known by other names ‘poly code’, ‘chain code’, ‘discrete code’ and
‘fixed-digit code’.
22
• Illustration: shows an example for attribute code.
• For the spur gear shown in Figure. using code, we can obtain the poly code as “22213”.
23
Merits and demerits of poly codes:
• The major advantages of poly codes are that they are compact and easy to use and develop.
• It is popular with manufacturing departments because it makes it easy to identify parts

that have similar features that require similar processing.
• Because a poly code represents a class of items as a string of features, it is also particularly
suitable for computer analysis.
• The primary disadvantage is that, for comparable code size, a poly code lacks the detail
presence in a mono code structure. also poly codes tend to be longer than mono codes.
24
3.Decision-Tree (or Hybrid) Code
• A hybrid code captures the best features of the hierarchical and poly code structures.
• This system is also known as decision-tree coding and it combines both design and
manufacturing attributes.
• In practice, most coding systems use a hybrid construction to combine the best.
• To reduce the length of a strict poly code, the first digit of such a system may split the
population into appropriate subgroups, as in a mono code structure. Then each subgroup
can have its own poly code structure.
• For example, the first digit might be used to denote the type of part, such as gear.
• The next four positions might be reserved for a short attribute that would describe the
attributes of the gear.
25
• The next digit position 6, might be used to designate another subgroup, such as material,
followed by another attribute code that would describe the attributes. Thus, a hybrid code
can be generated.
• Hybrid code is relatively more compact than a pure attribute code while retaining the
ability to easily identify parts with specific characteristics.
26
Production Flow Analysis
• Developed by Burbridge in 1971, Is a method for identifying part families and associated
machine groupings that uses the information contained on production route sheets rather
on part drawings.
• Work parts with identical or similar routings are classified into part families.
• PFA neither uses a classification and coding system nor part drawings to identify families.
• It uses the information such as part number, operation sequence, lot size, etc., contained on
the route sheet.
• This method is based on the route sheet information and sometimes referred as the route
sheet inspection method.
27
Steps Involved in PFA
• The following four steps are followed to carryout PFA:
(i) Data collection
(ii) Sortation of process routings
(iii) Preparation of PFA chart
(iv) Cluster analysis.
28
Step 1: Data collection
• The step in the PFA procedure is to collect the necessary data.
• Route sheets of all the components to be manufactured in the shop are prepared.
• Route sheet should contain the part number and operation sequence.
• Other data that can be collected/obtained from route sheet/operation sheet include lot size,
time standards and annual demand.
Step 2: Sortation of process routes
• The second step in the PFA is to arrange the parts into groups according to the similarity of
their process routings.
• A typical card format is required for organizing the data such as the part number, sequence
of code and lot size. A sortation procedure is used to arrange the parts into ‘packs’.
• Pack is nothing but a group of parts with identical process routings. Some pack may even
contain only one part number. A pack identification or letter is provided for each pack.
29
Step 3: PFA chart
• A PFA chart is a graphical representation of the process used for each pack.
• It is a tabulation of the process or machine code numbers for all of the part packs. Also
known as ‘part-machine incidence matrix’ or ‘component-machine incidence matrix’.
• The table below Illustrates a typical PFA chart having 7 machines (M1 to M7) and 9 parts
(P1 to P9).
30
• In this matrix, the entries have a value xij = 1 or 0:
• A value of xij = 1 indicates that the corresponding part i requires processing on machine j
• xij = 0 indicates that no processing of component i is accomplished on machine j
• However, in Table , the 0’s are indicated as blank (entry) entries for better clarity of the
matrix.
31
Step 4: Cluster analysis
• From the PFA chart, related grouping are identified and rearranged into a new pattern that
brings together packs with similar machine sequences.
• Table shows one possible rearrangement of the original PFA chart.
• It is clear that for the PFA chart considered we have three part families and three machine
cells, as shown below.
32
Table : Rearranged PFA chart, indicating possible machine grouping
Part Families: Cell groups:
PF1 ={P1, P8}C,= { M1, M5}
PF2 ={P2, P4, P6}C2= {M4, M7}
PF3 ={P3, P5, P9}C3={M2, M3, M6}
33
Advantages of PFA
• Parts classification and coding uses design data and the PFA uses manufacturing data (i.e.,
route sheet) to identify part families.
• Due to this fact, as pointed out by Groover, PFA can overcome two possible anomalies that
can occur in parts classification and coding.
• First, parts whose basic geometries are quite different may nevertheless require similar or
identical process routings.
• Second, parts whose geometries are similar may nevertheless require process routings that
are quite different.
• Also PFA requires less time than a complete parts classification and coding procedure.
34
Disadvantages of PFA
• PFA does not provide any mechanism for rationalizing the manufacturing routings.
No consideration being given to routing sheet whether the routings are optimal or
•
consistent or logical.
• Process sequences from route sheets are prepared by different process planners, hence the
routings may contain processing steps that are non- optimal, illogical and unnecessary.
35
Cellular Manufacturing
• It is an application of group technology in which dissimilar machines have been aggregated

into cells, each of which is dedicated to the production of a part family.
• Primary advantage of CM implementation is that a large manufacturing system can be

decomposed into smaller subsystems of machines called cells. Cells are dedicated to process
part families based on similarities in manufacturing requirements. Parts having similar
manufacturing requirements can be processed entirely in that cell.
• In addition, cells represent sociological units conducive to team work which lead to higher
levels of motivation for process improvements.
• Benefits associated with the application of CM include improved market response, more
reliable delivery promises, reduced tooling and fixtures and simplified scheduling.
• Literature surveys confirm substantial benefits from implementing cellular manufacturing

in manufacturing industries.
36
37
• Design Considerations Guiding the Cell Formation
• We know that cell formation is the early activity in the cell design process where part
families and associated machine groups are identified. Cell formation is influenced by a
variety of objectives and concerns.
• Lists the important design considerations that should be taken into account during cell
formation.
38
Composite Part Concept
• Mitrofanov (1959) and Edwards (1970) have proposed composite part approach to
implement the concept of cellular manufacturing.
• A composite part is formed by merging the primitives of all the parts of a part family.
• Composite is a single hypothetical part that can be completely processed in a manufacturing

cell/group.
• If a new part is loaded in a machine group, the degree of dissimilarity of the part of its
related part family or the hypothetical composite should have minimum deviation and
desired to be zero.
• The manufacturing facility could be planned on the basis of composite part to facilitate
economical production.
39
• The primitives of three parts shown are merged into composite part by incorporating all the
primitives of the three parts.
40
• It may not be judicious to merge all the primitives of parts due to various production
considerations,
• In such situation the shop will converge back to a large job shop and all the benefits of CMS
will be lost. Size of the manufacturing group depends on initial capital investment capacity,
machines available and outsourcing facilities.
• Individual parts features (in terms of primitives) could be merged in the composite part
based on their repetitions in the parts.
• Primitives having more repetitions will be more eligible candidates for merging in the
composite part.
• Various techniques could be used for selection of optimum primitives for merging in
composite parts.
• Genetic algorithm is proved to be one of the effective techniques.
41
Machine Cell Design and Layout
• Machine layout aims at determining the best arrangement of machines in each product cell.
• Minimization of material handling cost is an often used objective in determining the layout
of machines in a cell.
• Constraints related to the availability of space, material handling system type and so on are
considered.
• Type of operations and parts are not the only factors that impact the layout of machines.
• Type of material handling system to be used also needs to be considered;
42
• Example, the articulated robot (R) in figure(a) implies a circular arrangement of machines.
• If an AGV had been selected to tend the same machines, it would have been necessary to
use the layout in figure(b).
• Two step design of system
43
• Goal of machine cell layout is to arrange the product or functional cells formed on the
factory floor.
• Determining the layout of machine cells involves locating the cells in order to minimize the
total material handling cost subject to some constraints (e.g. shape of the facility).
• If all cells were square in shape and of the same size, then the cell layout could be modelled
as the quadratic assignment problem (QAP).
• Cell layout problem can be viewed as a machine layout problem, where each machine
represents a cell.
• Though cellular manufacturing offers numerous benefits, it is not always implemented due
to the following:
1. Parts and machines may not form mutually exclusive clusters.
2. The data required from the formation of cells might not be available.
44
Quantitative analysis in Cellular
Manufacturing
Rank Order Clustering Method
• It also known as binary ordering algorithm (BOA), It is a simple algorithm used to form
machine-part groups. it was Developed by J.R.King (1980).
• It considers two data:
• Number of components and Component sequences. Based on the component sequences, a
machine-part incidence matrix is developed.
• Rows of the machine component incidence matrix represent the machines which are
required to process the components. Columns of the matrix represent the component
numbers.
45
Manufacturing
Concept:
• Each row and each column of the matrix are considered as binary words.
Example, in a row if we have numbers (1 0 1 0 1), then the decimal equivalent is computed
•
as follows:
• Row decimal equivalent = (1× 24) +(0×23) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 20)
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 0+ 1 = 21
46
Manufacturing
Concept:
• If a column has the following entries from top to bottom, the decimal equivalent is computed
as explained below:
• Column entries = (11010)
• Column decimal equivalent = (1 × 24) + (1 × 23) + (0 × 22) + (1 × 21) + (0 × 20)
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 26
• Row with the largest decimal equivalent is considered to have the highest rank 1 among the
rows.
• Column with the largest decimal equivalent is considered to have the highest rank among
the columns.
• Procedure to obtain final machine component incidence matrix is summarized below.
47
Manufacturing
Steps in ROC Algorithm
The steps in ROC algorithm are given below:
Step 0: Input: Total number of components, component sequences.
Step 1: Form the machine-component incidence matrix using the component sequences.
Step 2: Compute binary equivalent of each row.
Step 3: Rearrange the rows of the matrix in rank wise (high to low from top to bottom).
48
Manufacturing
Steps in ROC Algorithm
Step 4: Compute binary equivalent of each column and check whether the columns of the
matrix are arranged in rank wise (high to low from left to right). If not, go to Step 7.
Step 5: Rearrange the columns of the matrix rank wise and compute the binary equivalent of
each row.
Step 6: Check whether the rows of the matrix are arranged rank wise, If not, go to Step 3;
otherwise, go to Step 7.
Step 7: Print the final machine-component incidence matrix.

49
Manufacturing
Arranging Machines in a GT cell
There are three basic ways to arrange machines in a GT cell are :
1. Line (or product) layout.
2. Functional (or process) layout.
3. Group (or combination) layout.
50
Manufacturing
1) Line (or Product) Layout
• Here the machines are arranged in the sequence as required by the product.
• If volume of production of one or more products is large, the facilities can be arranged to
achieve efficient flow of materials and lower cost per unit.
Suitability:
• Suitable for the continuous mass production of goods as it makes it possible for the raw
material to be fed into the plant and take out finished product on the other end.
51
Manufacturing
52
Manufacturing
2) Functional (or Process) Layout
• Characterized by keeping similar machines, operations at one location, i.e. all lathes at one
place, all milling machines at another place.
• In process layout, machines are arranged according to their functions.
Suitability: Suitable for job order/non-repetitive type production.
53
Manufacturing
54
Manufacturing
3) Group (or Combination) Layout
• It is a combination of the product layout and process layout.
• This layout Combines the advantages of both layout systems.
• Here machines are arranged into cells , each cell is capable of performing manufacturing
operations on one or more families of part.
• If there are m machines and n components, in a group layout, the m-machines and n -
components will be divided into distinct number of machines-component cells (groups) such
that all the components assigned to a cell are almost processed within that cell itself.
• Objective is to minimize the inter-cell movements.
Suitability: Preferred for batch type production, where the products are m
batches and in large variety.
55
Manufacturing
3) Group (or Combination) Layout
• If there are m machines and n components, in a group layout, the m-machines and n -
components will be divided into distinct number of machines-component cells (groups) such
that all the components assigned to a cell are almost processed within that cell itself.
• Objective is to minimize the inter-cell movements.
Suitability: Preferred for batch type production, where the products are m
batches and in large variety.
56
Manufacturing
57
Hollier Method-Simple Problems
Hollier Method 1:
• The first method uses the sums of flow "From" and "To" each machine in the cell. The
method can be outlined as follows:
1. Develop the From—To chart from part routing data. The data contained in the chart
indicates number of part moves between the machines for workstations)
2. Determine the "From” and "To" sums for each machine. This is accomplished by
summing all of the "From" trips and "To" trips for each machine (or operation ).The "From"
sum for a machine is determined by adding the entries in the corresponding row and the "To"
sum is found by adding the entries in the corresponding column.
3. Assign machines to the cell based on minimum "From" or To sums. The machine
having the smallest sum is selected. If the minimum value is a "To" sum, then the machine is
placed at the beginning of the sequence. If the minimum value is a “From” sum, then the
machine is placed at the end of the sequence. Tie breaker rules:
58
Hollier Method 1:
(a) If a tie occurs between minimum. "To" sums or minimum "From" sums, then the machine
with the minimum “From/To” ratio is selected.
(b) If both "To" and "From" sums are equal for a selected machine, it is passed over and the
machine with the next lowest sum is selected.
(c) If a minimum "To" sum is equal to a minimum "From" sum, then both machines are
selected and placed at the beginning and the end of the sequence respectively.
59
Hollier Method 1:
(a) If a tie occurs between minimum. "To" sums or minimum "From" sums, then the machine
with the minimum “From/To” ratio is selected.
(b) If both "To" and "From" sums are equal for a selected machine, it is passed over and the
machine with the next lowest sum is selected.
(c) If a minimum "To" sum is equal to a minimum "From" sum, then both machines are
selected and placed at the beginning and the end of the sequence respectively.
• Reformat the From-To chart After each machine has been selected, restructure the From-To
chart by eliminating the row and column corresponding to the selected machine and
recalculate the "From" and "To" sums. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all machines have been
assigned.
60
Hollier Method 2:
• This approach is based on the use of From/To ratios formed by summing the total flow from
and to each machine in the cell. The method can be reduced to three steps:
1. Develop the From—To chart. This is the same step as in Hollier Method 1.
2. Determine the From/To ratio for each machine. This is accomplished by summing up
all of the "From" trips and "To" trips for each machine (or operation). The "From" sum for a
machine is determined by adding the entries in the corresponding row and the "To" sum is
determined by adding the entries in the corresponding column. For each machine, the
From/To ratio is calculated by taking the "From" sum for each machine and dividing by the
respective "To" sum.
61
Hollier Method 2:
• 3. Arrange machines in order of decreasing From/To ratio. Machines with a high

From/To ratio distribute work to many machines in the cell but receive work from few
machines. Conversely machines with a low From/To ratio receive more work than they
distribute. Therefore, machines are arranged in order of descending From/Ip ratio. That is,
machines with high ratios are placed at the beginning of the work flow and machines with
low ratios are placed at the end of the work flow. In case of a tie, the machine with the
higher "From" value is placed ahead of the machine with a lower value.
62
Percentage of in-sequence moves
• Percentage of backtracking moves.
• The percentage of in sequence moves is computed by adding all the values representing in
sequence moves and dividing by the total number of moves.
• The percentage of back tracking moves is determined by summing all of the values
representing back tracking moves and dividing by the total number of moves.
63
UNIT IV
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM (FMS)

AND AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLE SYSTEM
(AGVS)
Types of Flexibility
• Many people are unaware of the fact that there are different types of flexibility.
These different types of flexibility are grouped according to the various types of
activities involved in athletic training.
• The ones which involve motion are called dynamic and the ones which do not are
called static.
• The different types of flexibility are,
1. Dynamic flexibility
2. Static-active flexibility
3. Static-passive flexibility
A.U.Meenakshi Sundareswaran 2
1. Dynamic flexibility
• Dynamic flexibility (also called kinetic flexibility) is the ability to perform dynamic
(or kinetic) movements of the muscles to bring a limb through its full range of
motion in the joints.
2. Static-active flexibility
• Static-active flexibility (also called active flexibility) is the ability to assume and
maintain extended positions using only the tension of the agonists and synergists
while the antagonists are being stretched.
• For example, lifting the leg and keeping it high without any external support (other
than from your own leg muscles).
3. Static-passive flexibility
• Static-passive flexibility (also called passive flexibility) is the ability to assume
extended positions and then maintain them using only our weight, the support of
our limbs, or some other apparatus (such as a chair or a barre).
• Note that the ability to maintain the position does not come solely from our
muscles, as it does with static active flexibility.
• Being able to perform the splits is an example of static-passive flexibility.
• Research has shown that active flexibility is more closely related to the level of
sports achievement than in passive flexibility.
• Active flexibility is harder to develop than passive flexibility (which is what most
people think of as "flexibility"); not only does active flexibility require passive
flexibility in order to assume an initial extended position, it also requires muscle
strength to be able to hold and maintained.
FMS- Components
Components/Elements Of FMS:
• As pointed out in the definition a four basic components/elements of a FMS are:
(i) Workstations
(ii)Material handling and storage system
(iii)Computer control system
(iv)Human resources
FMS- Components
1) FMS Workstations
• The workstations/processing stations used in FMS depends upon the type of
product manufactured by the system.
• In metal cutting/machining systems, the principle processing stations are usually
CNC machine tools. In addition, a FMS requires other several machines for
completing the manufacturing.
• The types of workstations that are usually found in a FMS are:
(i)Load/unload stations
(ii)Machining stations
(iii)Assembly workstations
(iv)Inspection stations
(v)Other processing stations
A.U. Meenakshi Sundareswaran 6
FMS- Components
2) Material Handling and Storage System:
• Material handling and storage system is the second main component of an FMS.
• Requirements set against the FMS material handling and storage system include
part transportation, raw material and final product transportation and storage of
work pieces, empty pallets, auxiliary materials, wastes, fixtures and tools.

FMS- Components
Functions of the material handling system
• Random, independent movement of work parts between stations. This means
that the material handling system should be capable of moving work parts from
one workstation to any other station. This provides various routing alternatives for
the different parts.
• Handle a variety of work part configurations. The material handling system
should be capable of handling any work part configurations, (prismatic or
rotational parts).
• Temporary storage. The material handling should be capable of storing the work
parts temporarily, so as to wait in a small queue at workstations. This helps to
increase machine utilisation.

FMS- Components
Functions of the material handling system
• Convenient access for loading and unloading work parts. The material handling
system should provide a means to load and unload parts from the FMS. This can
be achieved by locating one or more loading and/or unloading stations in the
system.
• Compatible with computer control. Last but not the least, the material handling
system should be capable of being controlled by the computer to direct it to the
various workstations, load/unload stations and storage areas.

Types of Material Handling Equipment
The material handling function in a FMS is shared between two systems:
(i)Primary handling system
(ii)Secondary handling system.

(i)Primary Handling System
• It establishes the basic layout of the FMS and is responsible for moving work parts
between workstations in the system.
• Table given below summarizes the type of material handling equipment typically
used as the primary handling system for the five FMS layouts.

FMS Layout

(ii)Secondary Handling System
• It consists of transfer devices, automatic pallet changers, and similar mechanisms
located at the workstations in the FMS.
The functions of the secondary handling systems are:
(i) To transfer work parts from the primary system to the machine tool or
other processing station.
(ii) To position the work parts with sufficient accuracy and repeatability at
the workstation for processing.
(iii) To provide buffer storage of work parts at each workstation, if required.
(iv) To reorient the work parts, if necessary, to present the surface that is to
be processed.

Computer Control System
• The third major component of FMS is the computer control system.
• In flexible manufacturing systems, computers are required to control the

automated and semi-automated equipment and to participate in the overall
coordination and management of the manufacturing system.
• A typical FMS computer control system consists of a central computer and micro-
computers controlling the individual machines and other components.
• The central computer coordinates the activities of the components to achieve

smooth overall operation of the system.

Human Resources
• The fourth and final component in the FMS is human labour.
• Like in any other manufacturing approaches, the operations of the FMS are also
managed by human labours.
• In FMS, human labours are needed to perform the following functions:
(i)To load raw work parts into the system.
(ii)To unload finished work parts from the system.
(iii)For tool changing and tool setting.
(iv)For equipment maintenance and repair.
(v)To furnish NC part programming in a machining system.
(vi)To program and operate the computer system.
(vii)To accomplish overall management of the system.
FMS Application
• The applications of FMS are realized in the following areas:
(i)Machining
(ii)Assembly
(iii)Sheet-metal press working
(iv)Forging
(v)Plastic injection moulding
(vi)Welding
(vii)Textile machinery manufacture
(viii)Semiconductor component manufacture
Economics of FMS
(i)5–20% reduction in personnel.
(ii)15–30% reduction in engineering design cost.
(iii)30–60% reduction in overall lead time.
(iv)30–60% reduction in work-in-process.
(v)40–70% gain in overall production.
(vi)200–300% gain in capital equipment operating time.
(vii)200–500% gain in product quality.
(viii)300–500% gain in engineering productivity.

Advantages of FMS
• Successfully implemented FMS offer several advantages. Some of them are given
below:
1.Increased machine utilization - Several features of FMS (such as automatic
tool/pallet changing, dynamic scheduling of production and so on).
2.Reduced inventory - Following the GT concept, FMS processes different parts
together. This tends to reduce the work-in-process inventory significantly.
3.Reduced manufacturing lead time - Because of reduced setups and more
efficient materials handling, manufacturing lead times are reduced.
4.Greater flexibility in production scheduling - A FMS has a greater
responsiveness to change. It means, FMS has the capability to make adjustments in
the production schedule on day-to-day basis to respond to immediate orders and
special customer requests.

Advantages of FMS
5.Reduced direct labour cost - Reduced (manual) material handling and
automation control of machines make it possible to operate an FMS with less direct
labour in many instances. Thus the direct labour cost is reduced considerably.
6.Increased labour productivity - Due to higher production rates and reduced

direct labour cost, FMS achieves greater productivity per labour hour.
7.Shorter response time - Setup time is relatively low with FMS as majority of the
work is done automatically. The lead time of production is hence very low and the
response time will be shorter.
8.Consistent quality - Human error is minimised, as there is maximum automation.

In the absence of human interface, the quality is consistent.
Advantages of FMS
9.Other FMS benefits include:
(i) Reduced factory floor space.

(ii) Reduced number of tools and machines required.
(iii) Improved product quality.
(iv) Easy expandability for additional processes or added capacity.

Disadvantages of FMS
• The major limitations of implementing a FMS are given below:
(i)Very high capital investment is required to implement a FMS.
(ii)Acquiring, training and maintaining the knowledgeable labour pool requires heavy investment.
(iii)Fixtures can sometimes cost much more with FMS and software development costs could be as much as 12
–20% of the total expense.
(iv)Tool performance and condition monitoring can also be expensive since tool variety could undermine
efficiency.
(v)Complex design estimating methodology requires optimizing the degree of flexibility and finding a trade-off
between flexibility and specialization.
FMS Planning and Control
FMS Planning
• The planning level (that is to say, the generation of day lists) determines to a high
degree the conditions at the scheduling level. We mention two possible types of
day lists which make a good schedule difficult, they are:
1) Day lists for which the capacity of at least one of the machines is underutilized.
This will result in idle time at the scheduling level.
2 ) Day lists where the machining activities use a large number of tools. This may
induce high change over times on the turret lathe. In addition, many tool loading
and unloading activities may be necessary. By this the utilization of operators, that
perform these activities, may become temporarily so high, that delays and machine
idle times is the result.

• Generally , we expect at the planning level to be able to form day list without
significant under utilization of the machines, regardless of the solution method
used.
• So we concentrate on the prevention of the second type of day lists.
• This will hopefully be realized by introducing the following objective:
• Minimize the total number of tools needed for the day lists over the planning
horizon.
• This objective is used in addition to the primary objective:
• Minimize the total number of late orders within the planning horizon.

Control of FMS system
• The FMS includes a distributed computer system that is linked to the work
stations, material handling system and other hardware components.
• A typical FMS computer system consists of a central computer and micro

computers controlling the individual machines and other components.
• The control system in FMS causes the process to accomplish its defined function.
The control can be either closed loop or open loop.

• A closed loop control system is one in which the output variable is compared with
an input parameter and any difference between the two is used to drive the output
into agreement with the input.
• It is also known as feedback control system.
• A closed loop control system consists of six basic elements which is shown in figure
below.

• Here, the controller compares the output value with the input and makes the
required adjustment in the process to reduce the difference between them, which
is accomplished by actuators.
• Actuators are the hardware devices that physically carry out the control actions
such as an electric motor, electric fan.
• A sensor is used to measure the output variable and closed the loop between input
and output. In contrast to the closed loop control system an open loop operates
without the feedback loop as in figure below.

Advantage Of Control System
(1) The actions performed by the control system are simple.
(2) The actuating function is very reliable.
(3) Any reaction forces opposing the actuation are negligible to effect the actuation.

Functions of a FMS computer control system
• Workstation/processing station control - Computer control system controls the

operations of the individual processing or assembly stations in the factory. For controlling
the machining centres, CNC is used.
• Distribution of control instructions to workstations - A direct numerical control (DNC)

is used in a machining FMS to download the part programs to the machines. The DNC
computer control system also stores the programs, allows entering and editing of
programs and performs the other DNC functions.

• Production control Computer control system , based on data entered into the
computer, helps to take decisions on part mix and rate of input of the various parts onto
the system.
• As a part of the production control, computer control system communicates instructions

to the operators for performing different tasks on different work units.
• Also certain production scheduling functions are accomplished at the manufacturing site
by the computer control system.

• Material handling system control Computer control system controls the material
handling system and coordinates its activities with those of the workstations. It has two
components.
(i) Traffic control This control function is concerned with the management of the
primary material handling system that moves work parts between workstations.
(ii) Shuttle control This control function refers to the operation and control of the
secondary handling system at each workstation.

• Workpiece monitoring - The computer control system also monitors
(i) The status of each cart and/or pallet in the primary and secondary handling systems.
(ii ) The status of each of the various workpiece types.
• Tool control - The FMS computer system should monitor and control the status of the cutting
tools. Tool control is concerned with
(i) Tool location The FMS control system should keep track of the cutting tools at each
workstation and take necessary steps to provide the required cutting tools.
(ii) Tool-life monitoring Based on the tool life database for each cutting tool and the record
of the machining time usage, FMS computer system should be able to notify the tool
replacement time to the operators.
• Quality control - This function of computer control system is to detect and possibly reject
defective work units produced by the system.
• Failure diagnosis - This function of computer control system involves diagnosing equipment
malfunction, preparing preventive maintenance schedules and maintaining spare parts inventory.
• Safety monitoring - This function of computer control system is to protect both human workers
in operating the system and the equipment comprising the system.
• Performance monitoring and reporting - The FMS computer system can be programmed to
generate various reports required by management on system performance. These reports help
the management to monitor the system performance and take the corrective measures/control
actions required.
Quantitative Analysis of Flexible Manufacturing
Systems
The mean transport time in the system is 2.5 min. The FMC produces three parts, A, B and
C. The part mix fractions and process routings for the three parts are presented in the table
below. The operation frequency fijk = 1.0 for all operations. Determine the
(a) maximum production rate of the FMC
(b) corresponding production rates of each product
(c) utilization of each machine in the system
(d) number of busy servers at each station.

Systems
(a) Use formula to calculate average workload at each station:
WL1 = (3+2)(0.2)(1.0) + (3+2)(0.3)(1.0) + (3+2)(0.5)(1.0) = 5.0 min
WL2 = 20(0.2)(1.0) + 15(0.3)(1.0) + 22(0.5)(1.0) = 19.5 min
WL3 = 12(0.2)(1.0) + 30(0.3)(1.0) + 14(0.5)(1.0) = 18.4 min
nt = 3(0.2)(1.0) + 3(0.3)(1.0) + 3(0.5)(1.0) = 3, WL4 = 3(2.5) = 7.5 min

Systems
Bottleneck station is determined by formula:
The station with the largest WLi/si ratio is the bottleneck station.

Systems
Bottleneck is station 2:
Apply formula:
Rp* = 1/19.5 = 0.05128 pc/min = 3.077 pc/hr
(b) Production rates for each product, apply formula for each:
RpA = 0.05128(0.2) = 0.01026 pc/min = 0.6154 pc/hr

RpB = 0.05128(0.3) = 0.01538 pc/min = 0.9231 pc/hr
RpC = 0.05128(0.5) = 0.02564 pc/min = 1.5385 pc/hr

Systems
(c) Utilization of each machine in the system; apply formula:
U1 = (5.0/1)(0.05128) = 0.256 = 25.6%
U2 = (19.5/1)(0.05128) = 1.0 = 100%
U3 = (18.4/1)(0.05128) = 0.944 = 94.4%
U4 = (7.5/1)(0.05128) = 0.385 = 38.5%

Systems
(d) Number of busy servers at each station, apply formula:
BS1 = (5.0)(0.05128) = 0.256 servers
BS2 = (19.5)(0.05128) = 1.0 servers
BS3 = (18.4)(0.05128) = 0.944 servers
BS4 = (7.5)(0.05128) = 0.385 servers

Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)
• Automated guided vehicles (AGVs) are modem material-handling and conveying
systems that are more appropriate for FMS applications and automation.
• An AGV is a computer controlled, driverless vehicle used for transporting materials
from point-to-point in a manufacturing setting.
• AGVs are powered by means of on-board batteries that allow operation for several
hours between recharging.

• Technology : About 90% of all AGVs are wire-guided vehicles. A wire embedded
about an inch deep in the floor, emits low-level signal (0.5 ampere current), which
the antenna of the carrier picks up and the on-board controller analyses to
determine the route.
• Wire-guided systems work best on floors with uncomplicated paths and limited
distances.
• Some recent developments are taped or striped paths with painted lines or metal
film defining the route.
• The carrier’s ultraviolet (UV) light source illuminates the painted lines and reads
the brightness of the reflected light to estimate its distance from the path.
• Another recent technology is a chemical strip that is laid over any surface and
needs little maintenance.

• A Painted, taped or chemical base paths have no distance limit.
• Route changes can be made easily without interrupting production.
• In a FMS/CIM plant, AGVs are integrated with other plant resources and
equipment through their controllers.
• The controller links the vehicle with the guide path and is thus the ‘brain’ of the
entire AGV system.

The various types of AGVs are:
(a)Driverless trains
(b)AGVs pallet trucks
(c)AGVs unit load carriers

AGVs is generally used:
• For moving pallet loads in factory or warehouse.
• For moving work-in-process along variable routes in low and medium production.

AGVS Advantages
• Just-in-time deliveries.
• Reduced labour and operational costs.
• Reduced product damage.
• Higher operational efficiency and reliability (efficient transport management, no errors).
• Increased safety.
• Flexibility towards future modifications.

Applications AGVS
• Pharmaceutical
• Chemical
• Manufacturing
• Automotive
• Paper and print
• Food and beverage
• Hospital
• Warehousing
• Theme parks
Vehicle Guidance technology
• There are four types of Vehicle Guidance technology
(i) Laser Guidance Technology

(ii) Magnetic Spot Guidance Technology
(iii) Magnetic Tape Guidance Technology
(iv) Inductive Guidance Technology (Wire Guidance)

Laser Guidance Technology
• Area is mapped and stored in the vehicle’s computer memory.
• It has multiple, fixed reference points, reflective strips, located within the
operating area that can be detected by a laser head that is mounted on the
vehicle.
• Here, guide path is easily changed and expanded.
• It is most flexible for vehicle movement.
• It is the most reliable and secure form of navigation.
• It is the most accurate form of guidance , system can be expanded without
alteration to the facility.
• It provides most dynamic control of blocking and traffic management.
Magnetic Spot Guidance Technology
• Guide path is marked with magnetic pucks that are placed on or in the floor.
• Guide path sensor is mounted on the vehicle.
• Here paths are open, the systems guide path can be changed.
• In this extensive layouts can complicate the layout of magnetic pucks.
• Depending on the accuracy of the magnetic sensor, calibration of the position may be
required for different vehicles.
• System can be expanded without damage or major alteration to the facility.

Magnetic Tape Guidance Technology
• Guide path is marked with a magnetic tape that is placed on the floor surface.
• In this ,paths are continuous.
• Paths are fixed, the systems guide path can be changed easily and quickly.
• Tape may have to be epoxy coated to floor.
• It is recommended for Automatic Guided Carts (AGC).

Inductive Guidance Technology (Wire Guidance)
• In this method, floor is cut and a wire is imbedded to represent the guide path.
• Here the paths are well marked on the floor.
• Paths are continuous, fixed, the systems guide path is not easily changed.
• Expansion of the facility is not as flexible as some other navigation technologies and may be
limited due to constraints.

Vehicle Management & Safety
Aspects of vehicle management
• Forward (on-board vehicle) sensing.

• Zone control.
• Vehicle dispatching
(i)On-board control panel
(ii)Remote call stations
(iii)Central computer control

Vehicle Safety
• An inherent safety feature of an AGV is that its traveling speed is slower than the
normal walking pace of a human.
• Automatic stopping of the vehicle takes place if it strays more than a short
distance, typically 50-150 mm.
• Vehicles are programmed either to stop when an obstacle is sensed ahead or to
slow down.
• When the safety bumper makes contact with an object, the vehicle is programmed
to brake immediately.
• Travel velocity of AGV is slower than typical walking speed of human worker.

Vehicle Safety
• Automatic stopping of vehicle takes place if it strays from guide path.
• It has a obstacle detection system in forward direction.
• Use of ultrasonic sensors are common Emergency in bumper - brakes vehicle when
contact is made with forward object.
• It has warning lights (blinking or rotating red lights)

Vehicle Safety
• Rail-Guided Vehicles - These are self-propelled vehicles that ride on a fixed-rail

system. These vehicles operate independently and are driven by electric motors
that pick up power from an electrified rail.
• Overhead monorail - It is suspended overhead from the ceiling.
• On-floor - parallel fixed rails , here tracks generally protrude up from the floor.
Routing variations are possible. It consists of switches, turntables and other special
track sections.

UNIT V
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
ROBOT ANATOMY AND RELATED ATTRIBUTES
• Theanatomy of industrial robots deals with the assembling of outer
components of a robot such as wrist, arm and body .
• Before jumping into robot configurations, here are some of the key facts about
robot anatomy.
(a) Joints and Links

(b) Common Robot Configurations
2
JOINTS AND LINKS
• The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links .
• Robot anatomy deals with the study of different joints and links and other
aspects of the manipulator's physical construction .
• A robotic joint provides relative motion between two links of the robot.
• Each joint, or axis, provides a certain degree-of-freedom (dof) of motion.
• In most of the cases, only one degree-of-freedom is associated with each joint.
• Robot's complexity can be classified according to the total number of degrees
-of-freedom they possess.
• Each joint is connected to two links, an input link and an output link.
3
JOINTS AND LINKS
•A Joint provides controlled relative movement between the input link and
output link. A robotic link is the rigid component of the robot manipulator .
• Most of the robots are mounted upon a stationary base, such as the floor.
From this base, a joint-link numbering scheme may be recognized as shown in
Figure.
4
JOINTS AND LINKS
• The robotic base and its connection to the
first joint are termed as link-0.
• The first joint in the sequence is joint-1.
• Link-0 is the input link for joint-1, while the
output link from joint-1 is link-1 which
leads to joint-2.
• Link 1 is the output link for joint-1 and the
input link for joint-2.
• This joint-link-numbering scheme is further
followed for all joints and links in the
robotic systems. 5
JOINTS AND LINKS
• Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified into
following five types as shown in Figure below.
6
JOINTS AND LINKS
a) Linear joint (type L joint)
• The relative movement between the input link and the output link is a translational
sliding motion, with the axes of the two links being parallel.
b) Orthogonal joint (type U joint)

• Thisalso has a translational sliding motion, but the input and output links are
perpendicular to each other during the move.
c) Rotational joint (type R joint)

• This type provides rotational relative motion, with the axis of rotation perpendicular
to the axes of the input and output links. 7
JOINTS AND LINKS
d) Twisting joint (type T joint)
• This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis or rotation is parallel to the
axes of the two links.
e) Revolving joint (type V-joint, V from the “v” in revolving)

• In this type, axis of input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint. Axis
of the output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
8
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
• Basically the robot manipulator has two parts viz.
•A body-and-arm assembly with three degrees-of-freedom and A wrist

assembly with two or three degrees-of-freedom.
• Forbody-and-arm configurations, different combinations of joint types are

possible for a three-degree-of-freedom robot manipulator.
9
• Five common body-and-arm configurations are outlined below.
10
(i) Polar configuration
• It consists of a sliding arm L-joint, actuated relative to the body, which rotates
around both a vertical axis (T-joint)and horizontal axis (R-joint ).
11
(ii) Cylindrical configuration
• It consists of a vertical column. An arm assembly is moved up or down relative to the
vertical column.
• Arm can be moved in and out relative to the axis of the column. Common
configuration is to use a T-joint to rotate the column about its axis .
• An L-joint is used to move the arm assembly vertically along the column, while an O-
joint is used to achieve radial movement of the arm.
12
(iii) Cartesian co-ordinate robot
• It is also known as rectilinear robot and x-y-z robot. It consists of three sliding
joints, two of which are orthogonal O-joints.
13
(iv) Jointed-arm robot
• It is similar to the configuration of a human arm.
• It consists of a vertical column that swivels about the base using a T-joint.
Shoulder joint (R-joint) is located at the top of the column.
• The output link is an elbow joint (another R joint).
14
(v) SCARA
• Its full form is ‘Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm'.
• It is similar in construction to the jointer-arm robot, except the shoulder and
elbow rotational axes are vertical.
• The arm is very rigid in the vertical direction, but compliant in the horizontal
direction. Robot wrist assemblies consist of either two or three degrees-of-
freedom.
15
(v) SCARA
• A typical three-degree-of-freedom wrist joint is depicted in Figure.
• Roll joint is accomplished by use of a T-joint.
• Pitch joint is achieved by recourse to an R-joint. Yaw joint, a right-and-left
motion, is gained by deploying a second R-joint.
16
(v) SCARA
• SCARA body and arm configuration does not use a separate wrist assembly .
• Its usual operative environment is for insertion-type assembly operations
where wrist joints are unnecessary.
• The other four body and arm configurations more or less follow the wrist-joint
configuration by deploying various combinations of rotary joints.
17
CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
• The three types of drive systems that are generally used for industrial robots
are:
(i)Hydraulic drive
(ii)Electric drive
(iii)Pneumatic drive
18
i) Hydraulic drive
• It gives a robot great speed and strength. They provide high speed and strength,
hence they are adopted for large industrial robots .
• This type of drives are preferred in environments in which the use of electric drive
robots may cause fire hazards
• Example: In spray painting.
Disadvantages of a hydraulic robot:

• Occupy more floor space for ancillary equipment in addition to that required by the
robot.
• There are housekeeping problems such as leaks. 19
ii) Electric drive
• This provides a robot with less speed and strength. Electric drive systems are
adopted for smaller robots.
• Robots supported by electric drive systems are more accurate, exhibit better
repeatability and are cleaner to use.
• Electrically driven robots are the most commonly available .

20
ii) Electric drive
• Electrically driven robots can be classified into two broad categories .
(i)Stepper motor driven.

(ii)Direct Current (DC) servo-motor driven.
• Most stepper motor-driven robots are of the open loop type .

• Feedback loops can be incorporated in stepper-driven robots .
• Servo-driven robots have feedback loops from the driven components back to the
driver. 21
iii) Pneumatic drive
• Generally used for smaller robots.
• Have fewer axes of movement.
• Carry out simple pick-and-place material-handling operations, such as picking
up an object at one location and placing it at another location .
• These operations are generally simple and have short cycle times.
• Here pneumatic power can be used for sliding or rotational joints.
• Pneumatic robots are less expensive than electric or hydraulic robots.
22
ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
• The Joint movements must be controlled if the robot is to perform as desired.
• Micro-processor-based controllers are regularly used to perform this control
action.
• Controller is organised in a hierarchical fashion, as illustrated in Figure.
• Each joint can feed back control data individually, with an overarching
supervisory controller co-ordinating the combined actuations of the joints
according to the sequence of the robot programme.
23
• Controller is organised in a hierarchical fashion, as illustrated in Figure.
24
Hierarchical control structure
(a) Limited Sequence Control
• Elementary control type, it is used for simple motion cycles, such as pick and
place operations.
• Itis implemented by fixing limits or mechanical stops for each joint and
sequencing the movement of joints to accomplish operation.
• Feedback loops may be used to inform the controller that the action has been
performed, so that the programme can move to the next step .
• No servo-control exists for precise positioning of joint. Many pneumatically
driven robots are this type. 25
(b) Playback with Point to Point Control
• Playback control uses a controller with memory to record motion sequences in
a work cycle, as well as associated locations and other parameters and then
plays back the work cycle during programme execution .
• Point
to point control means individual robot positions are recorded in the
memory.
• These positions include both mechanical stops for each joint and the set of
values that represent locations in the range of each joint .
• Feedback control is used to confirm that the individual joints achieve the
26
specified locations in the programme.
(c) Playback with Continuous Path Control
• Playback is as described above.

• Continuous path control refers to a control system capable of continuous
simultaneous control of two or more axes.
• Greater storage capacity—the number of locations that can be stored is
greater than in point to point and interpolation calculations may be used,
especially linear and circular interpolations. 27
(d) Intelligent Control
• An intelligent robot is one that exhibits behaviour that makes it seem intelligent .
• For example, capacities to interact with its ambient surroundings, decision-making
capabilities, communication with humans; computational analysis during the work
cycle and responsiveness to advanced sensor inputs .
• They may also possess the playback facilities of the above two instances.
• Requires a high level of computer control and an advanced programming language
to input the decision-making logic and other ‘intelligence’ into the memory.
28
END EFFECTORS
• It is commonly known as robot hand.
• It is mounted on the wrist, enables the robot to perform specified tasks.
• Various types of end-effectors are designed for the same robot to make it
more flexible and versatile.
• End-effectors are categorised into two major types:
1. Grippers
2. Tools
29
END EFFECTORS - GRIPPERS
• Grippers grasp and manipulate objects during the work cycle.
• Typically the objects grasped are work parts that need to be loaded or
unloaded from one station to another.
• It may be custom-designed to suit the physical specifications of the work parts

they have to grasp.
30
• End effectors, grippers are described in detail in table below.
Type comment
Two or more fingers that can be actuated by
Mechanical gripper robot controller to open and close on a work
part.
Vacuum gripper Suction cups are used to hold flat objects.

Making use of the principles of magnetism,
Magnetised devices these are used for holding ferrous work parts.
Deploying adhesive substances these hold

Adhesive devices flexible materials, such as fabric.
Simple mechanical devices For example, hooks and scoops.
31
Type comment
Mechanical gripper with two gripping
devices in one end effector for machine
Dual grippers loading and unloading.
Reduces cycle time per part by gripping two
work parts at the same time.
Mechanical gripper whereby, to
Interchangeable fingers accommodate different work part sizes,
different fingers may be attached.
Mechanical gripper with sensory feedback
capabilities in the fingers to aid locating the
Sensory feedback fingers
work part and to determine correct grip
force to apply (for fragile work parts).
32
Type comment
Mechanical gripper with the general anatomy of
Multiple fingered grippers the human hand.
Mechanical grippers that are commercially

available, thus reducing the need to custom-
Standard grippers design a gripper for each separate robot
application.
33
END EFFECTORS - TOOLS
• The robot end effecter may also use tools.
• Tools are used to perform processing operations on the work part.
• Typically the robot uses the tool relative to a stationary or slowly moving
object.
• In this way the process is carried out.

34
END EFFECTORS - TOOLS
• Examples of the tools used as end effectors by roots to perform processing
applications include:
• Spot welding gun
• Arc welding tool
• Spray painting gun
• Rotating spindle for drilling, routing, grinding, etc.
• Assembly tool (e.g. automatic screwdriver)
• Heating torch
• Water-jet cutting tool 35
END EFFECTORS
• For each instance, the robot controls both the position of the work part and the
position of the tool relative to the work part.
• For this purpose, the robot must be able to transmit control signals to the tool
for starting, stopping and otherwise regulating the tools actions .
• Figure illustrates a sample gripper and tool.
36
SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
• Two basic categories of sensors used in industrial robots:
(i)Internal sensors
(ii)External sensors
37
SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
(i) Internal sensors
• Internal sensors are used to monitor and control the various joints of the robot .
• They form a feedback control loop with the robot controller.
• Examples of internal sensors include potentiometers and optical encoders,

while tachometers of various types can be deployed to control the speed of
the robot arm.
38
SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
(ii) External sensors
• These are external to the robot itself.
• They are used when we wish to control the operations of the robot with other
pieces of equipment in the robotic work cell.
• External sensors can be relatively simple devices, such as limit switches that
determine whether a part has been positioned properly or whether a part is
ready to be picked up from an unloading bay. 39
SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
• Micro Sensor board
40
SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
• Advanced sensor model technologies for robotics
41
•A number of advanced sensor technologies may also be used; these are
outlined in Table.
Sensor Type Description
Used to determine whether contact is made
between sensor and another object. Two
types: touch sensors which indicate when
Tactile sensors
contact is made and force sensors which
indicate the magnitude of the force with the
object.
Used to determine how close an object is to
Proximity sensors
the sensor. Also called a range sensor.
Photocells and other photometric devices that
are used to detect the presence or absence of
Optical sensors
objects. Often used in conjunction to proximity 42
sensors.
•A number of advanced sensor technologies may also be used; these are
outlined in Table.
Sensor Type Description

Used in robotics for inspection, parts
Machine vision identification, guidance and other uses.
temperature, fluid pressure, fluid flow,

Miscellaneous category electrical voltage, current and other physical
properties.
43
ROBOT ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
• The capacity of the robot to position and orient the end of its wrist with
accuracy and repeatability is an important control attribute in nearly all
industrial applications.
• Some assembly applications require that objects be located with a precision

of only 0.002 to 0.005 inches.
• Other applications, such as spot welding, usually require accuracies of 0.020

to 0.040 inches.
44
• There are several terms that must defined in the context of this discussion:
• Control resolution
• Accuracy
• Repeatability
45
Resolution
• Resolution is based on a limited number of points that the robot can be
commanded to reach for, these are shown here as black dots .
• These points are typically separated by a millimetre or less, depending on
the type of robot.
• This is further complicated by the fact that the user might ask for a position
such as 456.4mm, and the system can only move to the nearest millimetre,
456mm, this is the accuracy error of 0.4mm.
46
Accuracy
• “How close does the robot get to the desired point”.
• This measures the distance between the specified position, and the actual
position of the robot end effector.
• Accuracy is more important when performing off-line programming, because
absolute coordinates are used.
47
Repeatability
• How close will the robot be to the same position as the same move made
before”.
• A measure of the error or variability when repeatedly reaching for a single
position.
• This is the result of random errors only.
• Repeatability is often smaller than accuracy.
48
INDUSTRIAL ROBOT APPLICATIONS
• Industrial Robot Applications can be divided into:
(i) Material-handling applications
(ii) Processing Operations
(iii) Assembly Applications
49
MATERIAL-HANDLING APPLICATIONS
• The robot must have following features to facilitate material handling:
1. The manipulator must be able to lift the parts safely.

2. The robot must have the reach needed.
3. The robot must have cylindrical coordinate type.
4. The robot’s controller must have a large enough memory to store all the
programmed points so that the robot can move from one location to another.
5. The robot must have the speed necessary for meeting the transfer cycle of
the operation. 50
• This category includes the following:
(1) Part Placement

(2) Palletizing or depalletizing
(3) Machine loading or unloading
(4) Stacking and insertion operations
51
(1) Part Placement:
• The basic operation in this category is the relatively simple pick-and-place
operation.
• Thisapplication needs a low-technology robot of the cylindrical coordinate
type.
• Only two, three or four joints are required for most of the applications.
• Pneumatically powered robots are often utilized.
52
(2) Palletizing and/or Depalletizing:
• The applications require robot to stack parts one on top of the other, that is to
palletize them or to unstack parts by removing from the top one by one, that is
depalletize them.
• Example: Process of taking parts from the assembly line and stacking them on a
pallet or vice versa.
53
(3) Machine loading and/or unloading:
• Robot transfers parts into and/or from a production machine.
There are three possible cases:
• Machine loading in which the robot loads parts into a production machine, but the
parts are unloaded by some other means.
Example: A press working operation, where the robot feeds sheet blanks into the press,
but the finished parts drop out of the press by gravity. 54
• Machine loading in which the raw materials are fed into the machine without robot
assistance. The robot unloads the part from the machine assisted by vision or no vision.
Example: Bin picking, die casting and plastic moulding.
• Machine loading and unloading that involves both loading and unloading of the work
parts by the robot. The robot loads a raw work part into the process and unloads a
finished part.
Example: Machine operation

55
PROCESSING OPERATIONS
• In processing operations, the robot performs some processing actions such as

grinding, milling, etc. on the work part.
• The end effector is equipped with the specialised tool required for the process .
• The tool is moved relative to the surface of the work part.
• Robot performs a processing procedure on the part.
• The robot is equipped with some type of process tooling as its end effector .
• Manipulates the tooling relative to the working part during the cycle.
56
PROCESSING OPERATIONS
• Industrial robot applications in the processing operations include:
(1) Spot welding
(2) Continuous arc welding
(3) Spray painting
(4) Metal cutting and deburring operations
(5) Various machining operations like drilling, grinding, laser and
waterjet cutting and riveting.
(6) Rotating and spindle operations
(7) Adhesives and sealant dispensing 57
ASSEMBLY OPERATIONS
• The applications involve both material handling and the manipulation of a tool .
• They typically include components to build the product and to perform material
handling operations.
These are classified as:
• Batchassembly: As many as one million products might be assembled. The
assembly operation has long production runs.
• Low-volume: In this a sample run of ten thousand or less products might be
made. The assembly robot cell should be a modular cell.
• One of the well suited area for robotics assembly is the insertion of odd
electronic components. 58
FUTURE APPLICATIONS
The medical applications of the robot

• Routine examinations
• Surgical procedures
Underwater applications
• Involves prospecting for minerals on the floor of the ocean.
• Salvaging of sunken vessels, repair the ship either at sea or in dry dock .
• Mobile firefighters to be used by air force and navy.
59
FUTURE APPLICATIONS
Surveillance and Guard duty
• Used in military
• Used in power generating plants, oil refineries and other civilian facilities that
are potential targets of terrorist groups.
60
ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING
• Itis a path in space to be followed by the manipulator, combined with

peripheral actions that support the work cycle.
• To programme a robot , specific commands are entered into the robot’s

controller memory and this action may be performed in a number of ways.
• For limited sequence robots ,programming occurs when limit switches and
mechanical stops are set to control the endpoints of its motions.
61
ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING
• A sequencing device controls the occurrence of the motions, which in turn controls
the movement of the joints that completes the motion cycle.
• For industrial robots with digital computers as controllers three programming
methods can be distinguished.
(a) Lead-through programming
(b) Computer-like robot programming languages
(c) Off-line programming.
• Lead-through methodologies and associated programming methods, are
outlined in detail in table
62
ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING - LEAD-THROUGH
PROGRAMMING
• Task is ‘taught’ to the robot by manually moving the manipulator through the
required motion cycle and simultaneously entering the programme into the
controller memory for playback.
• Two methods are used for teaching: powered lead-through and manual lead-
through.
63
ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING - MOTION
PROGRAMMING
• To overcome difficulties of co-ordinating individual joints associated with lead-
through programming, two mechanical methods can be used :
• The world co-ordinate system whereby the origin and axes are defined relative
to the robot base and the tool co-ordinate system whereby the alignment of the
axis system is defined relative to the orientation of the wrist face plate.
• These methods are typically used with Cartesian co-ordinate robots and not for
robots with rotational joints.
64
ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING - MOTION
PROGRAMMING
• The latter robotic types must rely on interpolation processes to gain straight line
motion.
• Straight line interpolation where the control computer calculates the necessary
points in space that the manipulator must move through to connect two points
and Joint interpolation where joints are moved simultaneously at their own
constant speed such that all joints start/stop at the same time.
65
MANUAL LEAD-THROUGH PROGRAMMING
• Manual lead through programming is convenient for programming playback
robots with continuous path control where the continuous path is an irregular
motion pattern such as in spray painting.
• This programming method requires the operator to physically grasp the end of
arm or the tool that is attached to the arm and move it through the motion
sequence, recording the path into memory.
66
MANUAL LEAD-THROUGH PROGRAMMING
• Because the robot arm itself may have significant mass and would therefore be
difficult to move, a special programming device often replaces the actual robot for the
teaching procedure.
• The programming device has the same joint configuration as the robot and is equipped
with a trigger handle (or other control switch) which the operator activates when
recording motions into memory.
• The motions are recorded as a series of closely spaced points. During playback the
path is recreated by controlling the actual robot arm through the same sequence of
67
points.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
• It can readily be learned by shop personnel.
• It is a logical way to teach a robot.
• It does not require knowledge of computer programming.
Disadvantages
• Downtime regular production must be interrupted to program the robot .
• Limited programming logic capability.
68
• Not readily compatible with modern computer based technologies.

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UNIT I

(i) System software:

(ii) Application software:

 It is also known as application programs,

 Increased design productivity.

 To increase the productivity of the designer.

 To improve the quality of design.

 To create a database for engineering.

• Review and release

Management • Project control and monitoring

• Selection of standard parts and assemblies

Four stages or functional areas of a CAD design process are:

The mathematic description of geometry should be such that:

 The models can be represented in three different ways:

 Documentation and Drafting

 Defined as an effective use of computers and computer technology in the

 The use of computers to assist in all the phases of manufacturing a

 The applications of CAM can be divided into two broad categories:

 Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing are often

 By interfacing CAD/CAM technology, it is possible to establish a direct link

 The user can interact with computer through a graphics terminal to

• Database developed during CAD is stored.

• Programming for NC, CNC and industrial robots

 It is a fast and convenient method.

 Drawing can be stored in database.

 Changes in drawings can be done easily and quickly.

 Neat and clean drawings of good quality can be prepared.

 Accuracy can be maintained.

 Low maintenance cost:

•Computer-aided process planning (CAPP)

 Some of the manufacturing control applications include:

•Process monitoring and control

 A systematic approach to the integrated, concurrent design of

 It is intended to cause the developers from the outset, to consider

 Concurrent product realization

 Incremental information sharing

 Integrated project management

 The applications of concurrent engineering are as follows,

•Development and production lead times

•Measurable quality improvements

•Engineering process improvements

1. Development and production lead times

 Product development time is reduced up to 60%.

 Field failure rates reduced up to 83%.

 AT&T achieved a fourfold reduction in variability in a poly silicon deposition process

 Engineering changes per drawing reduced up to 15 times.

 McDonnell Douglas had a 60% reduction in life-cycle cost and 40%

 It is a concept, an environment, an objective, a strategy.

1. Evaluating and developing different product strategies.

2. Analysing markets and generating forecasts.

3. Analysing product/market characteristics and generating concepts of possible

4. Designing and analysing components for machining, inspection, assembly and

5 . Evaluating and/or determining batch sizes, manufacturing capacity,

scheduling and control strategies relating to the design and fabrication

processes involved in the particular product.

6. Analysis and feedback of certain selected parameters relating to the

manufacturing processes, evaluation of status reports from the DNC system.

7. Analysing system disturbances and economic factors of the total system.

 CIM is a methodology and a goal rather than an assemblage of component