Dokumen - Pub Laboratory Manual For Anatomy and Physiology 6th Edition 6 978 1119304142 (301 350)

E X E R C I S E 1 8 SPINAL NERVES 291
D. Major Nerves from the

Cervical and Brachial Plexuses
The cervical plexus is formed from the anterior (ventral)
rami of C1–C5 on both the right and left sides of the
spinal cord. An important paired nerve from this plexus is 1
the phrenic nerve (phreni- = relating to the diaphragm),
C3–C5, which innervates the diaphragm and is important 2
for breathing. Remember the saying, “Cervical nerves 3, 4,
and 5 keep the diaphragm alive.” Other cervical nerves 3 6
mainly supply the scalp, neck, shoulders, and chest. The
brachial plexus is formed from the ventral rami of C5–T1. 4
This plexus serves the shoulders and upper limbs. The
main nerves that arise from the brachial plexus are the
axillary, median, musculocutaneous (musculo- = muscle;
cutan- = skin), radial, and ulnar.
Before Going to Lab

1 Label the spinal nerves in Figure 18.5.
5
(posterior
to bone)
LAB ACTIVITY 4 Major Nerves
from the Cervical
and Brachial Plexuses
1 Identify the nerves from Figure 18.5 on a model, chart,
or use the search text box in Real Anatomy (Nervous)
to find these structures.
2 Identify approximate location of nerves in Table 18.1
on yourself and demonstrate muscle action that occurs
Anterior view
when each nerve is stimulated.
• axillary nerve 1 ________________________
3 Test nerve conduction.
• median nerve
• Flex your forearm to 90°. • musculocutaneous 2 ________________________
• Palpate a cord-like nerve between your medial (mus-cu-lo-cu-TAYN-e-
epicondyle and olecranon process. ous) nerve 3 ________________________
• Place pressure on the nerve with your fingers until you • phrenic (FREN-ic) nerve
4 ________________________
feel a difference in your forearm, hand, and digits. • radial nerve
• Describe what sensations you felt and what nerve • ulnar nerve 5 ________________________
was compressed.
• Describe what digits are involved and what produced 6 ________________________
your symptoms. FIGURE 18.5 Major nerves from the cervical and
4 Discuss your results with the class. brachial plexuses.
TABLE 18.1 Motor Function of Major Nerves from Cervical and Brachial Plexuses
NERVE M U S C L E S I N N E R VAT E D B Y N E R V E
Phrenic Diaphragm
Axillary Deltoid and teres minor muscles
Musculocutaneous Anterior muscles of the arm
Ulnar Flexor carpi ulnaris, medial-half of flexor digitorum profundis, and most hand muscles
Median Muscles of anterior forearm (excluding flexor carpi ulnaris and other muscles supplied by
ulnar nerve) and some of the muscles of the hand
Radial Muscles of posterior arm and forearm
292 EXERCISE 18 SPINAL NERVES
E. Major Nerves from the L2

L3
Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses L4
The lumbar plexus is made up of anterior (ventral) rami from

L1–L4. The lumbar plexus supplies the skin and muscles of the
abdominal wall, external genitalia, and part of the lower limbs. 1
The major nerves are the femoral and obturator nerves. 2
The sacral plexus is formed from the anterior (ven-
tral) rami from L4–S4. This plexus supplies the buttocks, 3
perineum, and most of the lower limbs. Its major nerves are 4
the pudendal and sciatic. The sciatic is composed of the
tibial and common fibular (peroneal) nerves.
Before Going to Lab

1 Label the nerves listed in Figure 18.6.
5
LAB ACTIVITY 5 Major Nerves 6
from the Lumbar

and Sacral Plexuses
1 Identify the nerves from Figure 18.6 on models, charts,
or use the search text box in Real Anatomy (Nervous)
to find these structures.
2 Identify approximate location of nerves in Table 18.2
on yourself and demonstrate muscle action that occurs
when each nerve is stimulated. ■
SAFETY NOTE: Wear safety glasses and gloves when using

fresh or preserved tissue. Wash hands thoroughly with soap ANTERIOR VIEW POSTERIOR VIEW
and water when you are done.
Distribution of nerves from the lumbar and sacral plexuses
F. Dissection of Nerve • femoral (FEM-o-rul) nerve 1 ________________________

Plexuses and Major Nerves • obturator (OB-tur-a-tor)
2 ________________________
nerve
• common fibular
If you are dissecting an animal to observe nerves, refer to 3 ________________________
(peroneal)
the dissection manual. Major nerves of animal plexuses are • pudendal (pyoo-DEN-dal)
similar to human nerves and will reinforce your knowledge 4 ________________________
• sciatic (sci-A-tic)
of human nerves. This dissection will allow you to observe • tibial 5 ________________________
the fascia that surrounds and protects the nerves as well as
showing you how nerves dive between skeletal muscles to 6 ________________________
surface in other locations. Real Anatomy, a virtual cadaver
dissection, can be used to complement or substitute for animal FIGURE 18.6 Major nerves of the lumbar and sacral
plexuses.
dissection of nerves.
TABLE 18.2 Motor Function of Nerves from the Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses
NERVE M U S C L E S I N N E R VAT E D B Y N E R V E S
Femoral Iliacus, quadriceps femoris, sartorius, pectineus

Obturator Adductor longus, adductor brevis, and part of adductor magnus, gracilis
Common fibular Fibularis longus muscle, tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus
Pudendal Muscles of perineum
Sciatic Biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus (hamstrings)
Tibial Gastrocnemius, soleus, tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum longus, plantaris, flexor hallucis longus
Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section ______________________________
Reviewing Your Knowledge E X E R C I S E
A. Connective Tissue Coverings

18
Identify the connective tissue covering.
______________________ 1. Covers unmyelinated or myelinated axons
______________________ 2. Covers fascicles
______________________ 3. Covers nerves
B. Rami of Spinal Nerves

Identify the spinal nerve ramus.
______________________ 1. Branch that serves the deep muscles and skin of the back
______________________ 2. Branches that belong to the sympathetic nervous system
______________________ 3. Branch that forms nerves serving the limbs
C. Major Nerves of the Nerve Plexuses

Identify the nerve plexus from which each nerve originates.
______________________ 1. femoral n.
______________________ 2. sciatic n.
______________________ 3. phrenic n.
______________________ 4. ulnar n.
______________________ 5. axillary n.
______________________ 6. tibial n.
______________________ 7. obturator n.
293
______________________ 8. radial n.
______________________ 9. common fibular n.
______________________ 10. pudendal n.
D. Spinal Nerves
Complete the sentences with the correct term about the spinal nerves.
⎭
⎪ 1. The sciatic nerve is composed of two nerves, the _________________.
⎬
⎪
⎫ 2. and the _________________.
3. There are ______ pairs of spinal nerves.
4. The nerve that supplies the posterior thigh _________________.
5. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of coccygeal nerves.
6. If the anterior (ventral) ramus of a spinal nerve is severed, there is a _________________ (motor and/or sensory) loss.
7. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of thoracic nerves.
8. The nerve that supplies the anterior thigh is the _________________.
9. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of sacral nerves.
10. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of lumbar nerves.
11. If the posterior (dorsal) ramus of a spinal nerve is severed, the functional loss is _________________ (motor and/or
sensory).
12. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of cervical nerves.
13. The _________________ nerve supplies the deltoid and teres minor muscles.
14. The _________________ nerve supplies the triceps brachii muscles and the extensor digitorum longus.
15. The _________________ nerve supplies the biceps brachii muscles.
16. The _________________ nerve supplies the diaphragm.
17. The _________________ nerve supplies most hand muscles.
18. The _________________ nerve supplies the flexor carpi radialis.

E X E R C I S E 1 8 SPINAL NERVES 295
E. Anatomy Review
For Figures 18.7, 18.8, and 18.9, write the name of the nerve next to the appropriate numbered blank.
2
1 _____________________________________________________
3 2 _____________________________________________________
3 _____________________________________________________
4
4 _____________________________________________________
5
5 _____________________________________________________
6
6 _____________________________________________________
FIGURE 18.7 Transverse section of a spinal nerve with coverings and fascicles.
3 6
1 _____________________________________________________
2 _____________________________________________________
3 _____________________________________________________
4 _____________________________________________________
5 _____________________________________________________
6 _____________________________________________________
FIGURE 18.8 Major nerves from the cervical and brachial plexuses.
ANTERIOR POSTERIOR
1 _____________________________________________________
2 _____________________________________________________
3 _____________________________________________________
4 _____________________________________________________
5 _____________________________________________________
6 _____________________________________________________
FIGURE 18.9 Major nerves from the lumbar and sacral plexuses.
Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section
______________________________
EXERC ISE
Using Your Knowledge E X E R C I S E
Identify the correct nerve for each question.

18
_______________________ 1. A broken forearm resulted in an inability to pronate the forearm and loss of finger
movement in digits 1–3. Name the nerve that was injured.
_______________________ 2. An injection into the shoulder results in an inability to extend the wrist and fingers.
Name the nerve that was injured.
_______________________ 3. Health care professionals are taught how to properly administer gluteal injections to
avoid pain and injury caused by inadvertently striking a major nerve. Name the nerve to
avoid.
_______________________ 4. Hitting the medial epicondyle results in a tingling sensation in part of the hand. Name
the nerve hit and the part of the hand that tingles.
_______________________ 5. John Jones injured his spinal cord. He has use of his serratus anterior muscle, biceps
brachii, and deltoid. However, he does not have movement in most muscles of his hand
and digits 4 and 5. Where is his spinal cord injury?
_______________________ 6. Following the birth of her daughter, Mary had trouble adducting her lower limbs. Which
nerve was injured during childbirth?
_______________________ 7. Charles broke his leg playing softball. The fracture was a compound fracture of the
fibula. After the cast was removed, he experienced difficulty dorsiflexing his foot. Which
nerve was affected?
Identify the nerve that would carry pain impulses from each of the following injured areas.
_______________________ 8. Greenstick fracture of the tibia
_______________________ 9. Sunburn on the skin over deltoid muscles
_______________________ 10. Splinter in digit 5 of the hand
297
E X E R C I S E 1 9 S O M AT I C R E F L E X E S 299
E X E R C I S E
Somatic Reflexes
19
O B J E C T I V E S M A T E R I A L S
1 Identify and describe the five components of a • reflex hammer (with rubber head)
somatic reflex arc • cross-section spinal cord model
2 Describe how monosynaptic and polysynaptic • • Biopac Laboratory Guide Experiments:
reflex arcs differ • Effect of Physical and Mental Distractions
on Patellar Reflex (Knee Jerk) Response
3 Test and describe somatic reflexes
4 Describe the effect of distractions on reflexes
R eflexes are rapid, involuntary motor

responses to an environmental stimulus detected
by sensory receptors. A nerve impulse travels
from the receptor through a neural reflex arc pathway to
an effector. If the motor response is contraction of skeletal
A. Reflex Arcs
There are 5 components of a reflex arc:
1. Sensory receptor. If the stimulus to the sensory recep-
muscle, the reflex is a somatic reflex. If the motor response tor is strong enough, an action potential is generated in
involves cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, or glands, the the sensory neuron.
reflex is an autonomic (visceral) reflex. Reflexes medi- 2. Sensory neuron. The sensory neuron propagates the
ated by spinal nerves are called spinal reflexes, whereas action potential and synapses with neurons in the
reflexes mediated by cranial nerves are called cranial spinal cord or brain stem.
reflexes. Most reflexes help our bodies maintain homeo-
stasis and therefore have a protective function.
299
300 E X E R C I S E 1 9 S O M AT I C R E F L E X E S
3. Integrating center. The integrating center is located

within the gray matter of the central nervous system Before Going to Lab
(CNS) and transfers information from the sensory 1 Label Figure 19.1.
neuron to the motor neuron. The integrating center of a 2 Identify whether the reflexes in Table 19.1 are somatic
monosynaptic reflex arc is a single synapse between a reflexes or autonomic reflexes, and whether a spinal
sensory and motor neuron. In a polysynaptic reflex arc, nerve or a cranial nerve mediates it.
the integrating center consists of multiple synapses
involving one or more interneurons (association
neurons) between a sensory and a motor neuron.
LAB ACTIVITY 1 Reflexes
4. Motor neuron. The motor neuron carries the action
potential initiated by the integrating center to the 1 Using the cross-section spinal cord model or chart, trace
effector. the pathway of the reflex arc illustrated in Figure 19.1.
2 Answer the Discussion Questions with your lab group.
5. Effector. An effector can be skeletal muscle
(somatic reflex), cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, or
glands (autonomic reflexes). A reflex is the response DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
of the effector to stimulation by the motor neuron of Reflex Arc
the reflex arc. 1 Is the reflex arc in Figure 19.1 monosynaptic or poly-
Reflex arcs that involve sensory receptors, sensory synaptic?
nerve neurons, motor neurons, and effectors all on the same
side of the body are ipsilateral. Contralateral reflex arcs
involve sensory receptors and neurons on one side of the
body and motor neurons and effectors on the opposite side. 2 Is the reflex arc in Figure 19.1 ipsilateral or contralateral?
Bilateral (consensual) reflexes involve both sides of the
body simultaneously.
■
TA B L E 1 9 . 1 Types of Reflexes
S O M AT I C O R SPINAL NERVE REFLEXES OR
REFLEX ACTION AUTONOMIC REFLEX CRANIAL NERVE REFLEXES
Plantar flexion of foot when Achilles

tendon is stretched
Salivation in response to lemon juice

on tongue
Blinking in response to touching the

cornea
Flexing of arm in response to touching

a hot object
2
4
5
7 6
• effector 1 __________________________________ 5 __________________________________
• integrating center
• motor neuron cell body 2 __________________________________ 6 __________________________________
• motor neuron axon
• sensory neuron cell body 3 __________________________________ 7 __________________________________
• sensory neuron axon
4 __________________________________
• sensory receptor
FIGURE 19.1 Reflex arc components.
B. Reflex Testing • Sensory neuron: Sensory axons carry nerve impulses

to the integrating center (gray matter) in the spinal
A series of reflex tests are used clinically to evaluate the cord.
nervous system and to diagnose an abnormality or dys- • Integrating center: The monosynaptic integrating
function that may cause an inhibition, exaggeration, or center (two neurons, one synapse) is located in the
absence of reflexes. anterior gray horn of the spinal cord. The sensory
axon synapses with and initiates nerve impulses
in the motor neuron that innervates the quadriceps
1. Patellar Reflex (Knee Jerk) femoris muscle group.
The patellar reflex is the extension of the knee that • Motor neuron: Axons of the motor neuron travel in
occurs when the quadriceps femoris tendon is stretched. the femoral nerve to the quadriceps femoris muscle
A stretched tendon will stretch the muscle and cause it group.
to contract. This reflex helps prevent injury by preventing • Effector: Quadriceps femoris muscle group (ago-
muscles from overstretching. The stretch reflex helps nists) contracts and extends the leg when stimulated.
maintain posture and equilibrium. The sensory neuron associated with the monosyn-
aptic stretch reflex arc is also a component of a
The components of the patellar reflex arc are: polysynaptic reflex arc that has 3 neurons and 2
synapses. This reflex arc inhibits the motor neuron to
• Sensory receptors: Muscle spindles located in the the antagonist muscle group and results in its relax-
quadriceps femoris muscle group. Tapping the ation. This is referred to as reciprocal innervation—
quadriceps tendon stretches this muscle group and stimulation of contraction in a muscle(s) with simulta-
stimulates muscle spindles (stretch receptors), neous inhibition (relaxation) of antagonistic muscles.
initiating nerve impulses in axons of sensory neurons.
• Although the grading is subjective, grade the exten-

Before Going to Lab sion of the leg:
1 Label the patellar reflex arc and reciprocal innervation Results: ______________
in Figure 19.2. 0 = no response (hypo-reflexive)
+1 = little response (hypo-reflexive)
+2 = normal response
+3 = above normal response
LAB ACTIVITY 2 Testing +4 = exaggerated reflex (hyper-reflexive)
the Patellar Reflex • Now ask the subject to clasp both hands in front
of the chest and isometrically pull in opposite
1 Test the patellar reflex.
directions. This action leads to an enhancement
• Have the subject sit on the edge of a table or a tall
of spinal reflexes causing a reinforced patellar reflex.
lab chair with his/her knee off the table or chair and
• While the subject is pulling, strike the patellar tendon
the leg dangling and relaxed.
again and observe the distance of leg movement this time.
• Palpate the patella and the tibial tuberosity; also
• Reinforced patellar reflex results: ______________
palpate the patellar ligament located between these
two structures. 2 Answer the Discussion Questions with your lab group.
• With the tapered end of a reflex hammer, gently but 3 Complete Biopac Laboratory Guide Experiment:
firmly tap the patellar ligament, which includes a Effect of Physical and Mental Distraction on Patellar
portion of fibers of the quadriceps femoris tendon. Reflex (Knee Jerk) Response.
3
+
2
1
4 +
–
5
+
• effector for patellar reflex arc
• effector for reciprocal innervation
• integrating center for patellar reflex arc
6 • integrating center for reciprocal innervation
• motor neuron for patellar reflex arc
8 7 • motor neuron for reciprocal innervation
• receptor
• sensory neuron
1 ___________________________________________
2 ___________________________________________
3 ___________________________________________
4 ___________________________________________
5 ___________________________________________
6 ___________________________________________
7 ___________________________________________
8 ___________________________________________
FIGURE 19.2 Patellar reflex arc.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

Patellar Reflex Biceps Reflex
1 Is the patellar reflex ipsilateral or contralateral? 1 Name the nerve that carries the sensory and motor axons
for this reflex arc.
2 During the patellar reflex, are the motor neurons supplying

the hamstrings stimulated or inhibited? 2 Name the antagonistic muscles that are inhibited by
reciprocal innervation.
3 Describe the effect that clasping and pulling the hands

has on the patellar reflex compared with the first patel-
■
lar reflex.
3. Triceps Reflex (Triceps Jerk)
The triceps reflex is the contraction of the triceps brachii
■ muscle that occurs when the triceps brachii tendon is
stretched.
2. Biceps Reflex (Biceps Jerk)
The biceps reflex is the contraction of the biceps brachii LAB ACTIVITY 4 Triceps Reflex
muscle that occurs when the biceps tendon is stretched. (Triceps Jerk)
1 Test the triceps reflex.
LAB ACTIVITY 3 Testing the Biceps • Have the subject stand with an arm completely
relaxed and hanging down at the side.
Reflex (Biceps Jerk)
• Palpate the triceps tendon (proximal to olecranon
1 Test the biceps reflex. process) as the subject isometrically contracts the
• Have the subject stand with an arm completely triceps muscles.
relaxed and hanging down at the side. • Keep your finger on the tendon and have the subject
• Ask the subject to isometrically contract the biceps bend the arm across the front of the body.
brachii so you can palpate the tendon in the cubital • Have the subject support the arm by holding it in
fossa (antecubital fossa). his/her other hand.
• After locating the tendon, have the subject relax and • Use the tapered end of the reflex hammer to tap the
place your thumb over the tendon. triceps tendon.
• Gently but firmly tap your thumb with the tapered • Triceps tendon reflex results: ____________
end of the reflex hammer. 0 = no response
• Biceps reflex results: ____________ +1 = little response
0 = no response +2 = normal response
+1 = little response +3 = above normal response
+2 = normal response +4 = exaggerated reflex
+3 = above normal response • If the reflex is absent, have the subject clench his/her
+4 = exaggerated reflex teeth and try the reflex again.
• If the reflex is absent, have the subject clench his/her 2 Answer the Discussion Questions with your lab group.
teeth and try the reflex test again.
2 Answer the Discussion Questions with your lab group.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

Triceps Reflex Achilles Reflex
1 Name the nerve that carries the sensory and motor axons 1 Name the nerve that carries the sensory and motor
for this reflex arc. neurons for this reflex arc.
2 Name the antagonistic muscles that are inhibited by 2 Name the antagonistic muscles that are inhibited by
reciprocal innervation. reciprocal innervation.
■ ■
4. Achilles Reflex (Ankle Jerk) 5. Plantar Flexion

The response of this reflex is plantar flexion when the Plantar flexion is a superficial cord reflex that is an impor-
Achilles (calcaneal) tendon is tapped with the reflex hammer. tant neurological test. This test stimulates the cutaneous
receptors and involves the brain in addition to the spinal
cord. In adults, plantar flexion and flexed (curled) toes
LAB ACTIVITY 5 Achilles Reflex occurs when the plantar surface of the foot is stroked. A
(Ankle Jerk) reaction of dorsiflexion with extended flared toes (Babinski’s
sign) is seen in infants because all the nerve fibers are not
1 Test the Achilles reflex. myelinated. The Babinski’s sign is abnormal in adults.
• Have the subject keep one foot on the floor and place
the knee of the other leg on a chair with the foot dan-
gling over the edge. LAB ACTIVITY 6 Plantar Flexion
• Ask the subject to slightly dorsiflex the foot to
stretch the tendon a little, but be relaxed. 1 Test the plantar flexion reflex.
• Tap the calcaneal tendon with the tapered end of a • Have the subject seated with a foot propped up and
reflex hammer and observe the response of the foot. relaxed.
• Calcaneal reflex results: _____________ • Using the metal end of the reflex hammer, stroke
0 = no response the plantar surface of the foot starting at the heel,
+1 = little response extending up the lateral side of the foot, and crossing
+2 = normal response over to the great toe area.
+3 = above normal response • Plantar flexion results: ______________
+4 = exaggerated reflex 0 = no response
2 Answer the Discussion Questions with your lab group. +1 = little response
+2 = normal response
+3 = above normal response
+4 = exaggerated reflex
2 Answer Discussion Questions with your lab group.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Plantar Flexion
1 Name the nerve that carries the sensory and motor
neurons for this reflex arc.
2 Name the antagonistic muscles that are inhibited by

reciprocal innervation.
■
A. Reflex Arc
19
1. Name the 5 components of a reflex arc in order.
a. ______________________
b. ______________________
c. ______________________
d. ______________________
e. ______________________
2. How many neurons are in a monosynaptic reflex arc? _______

How many synapses are in the integrating center? _______
3. How many neurons are in a polysynaptic reflex arc? _______

How many synapses are in a polysynaptic reflex arc containing two interneurons in the integrating center? _______
4. Which type of neuron does the sensory neuron synapse with in a monosynaptic reflex arc? ______________________
5. Which type of neuron does the sensory neuron synapse with in a polysynaptic reflex arc? _______________________
B. Reflex Tests
Name the nerve that is tested in each of the following reflexes.
1. Achilles reflex ______________________
2. Biceps reflex ______________________
3. Patellar reflex ______________________
4. Plantar flexion reflex ______________________
5. Triceps reflex ______________________
6. Is a Babinski’s sign normal in adults? ______________________
305
C. Reflexes
1. Define reflex.
2. Describe the difference between a somatic and visceral reflex.
3. Describe the difference between a cranial and spinal reflex.
4. Describe the difference between an ipsilateral and contralateral reflex arc.
5. Define reciprocal innervation.

______________________________
EXERC ISE
A. Flexor and Crossed Extensor Reflex

19
You are walking along the beach barefoot and step on a sharp object with your right foot. You immediately flex the right
leg and balance yourself by extending the left leg. Label the following neurons in Figure 19.3.
1. Sensory neuron 4. Motor neuron causing flexion
2. Interneuron sending impulses up and down the spinal 5. Motor neuron causing extension
cord
3. Interneuron synapsing with motor neurons
+ +
Left leg
Right leg
FIGURE 19.3 Flexor and crossed extensor reflex arc.
307
For the reflex arc in Figure 19.3, name the:
______________________ 6. Nerve carrying motor information causing right leg flexion
______________________ 7. Nerve carrying motor information causing left leg extension
______________________ 8. Agonistic muscles for right leg flexion
______________________ 9. Agonistic muscles for left leg extension
B. Modification of Reflex Activity

10. Reflex activity can be modified by the cerebral cortex. For example, you are baking a roast in the oven. As you are
moving the roast from the oven to the counter, hot juices splash you. Reflex activity would cause you to drop the pan,
but you hold on to it. Explain how the cerebral cortex overrides the reflex.
EXERCISE 20 BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 309
E X E R C I S E
Brain Structure
and Function 20
1 Identify the major external and internal • human brain models, charts, or use Real Anatomy
structures of the brain (Nervous)
2 Describe the basic functions of the principal • preserved human brain, skull
structures of the brain • ventricular system model
3 Identify brain waves and describe the effect of • Dissection: preserved sheep brains, dissection
stimulation on brain wave patterns equipment, disposable gloves, safety glasses
4 Identify the 3 main cranial fossae • • Biopac Laboratory Guide Experiment:
5 Name the 3 meninges and describe their • The Effect of Mental and Sensory
Stimulations on Brain Wave Patterns
similarities and differences
6 Identify the 4 ventricles of the brain and describe
their functions
7 Trace the cerebrospinal fluid circulation
8 Compare the anatomy of the sheep brain with
that of the human brain
T he human brain simultaneously conducts

and coordinates a variety of incredible processes
with which no computer is presently able to
compete. The expansive development of the human brain
distinguishes it from that of all other creatures. One of the
A. Major Brain Regions
The brain is composed of 4 main regions: the brain stem,
cerebellum (cerebel- = little brain), diencephalons (di- =
through; encephal- = brain), and cerebrum (cerebr- =
largest organs in the human body, our brain is responsible brain). The brain stem is connected to the superior part
for our memory, intellect, ideas, and behavior. The brain is of the spinal cord, the cerebellum is posterior to the brain
the center for cataloging sensory information, integrating stem, and the diencephalon is superior to the brain stem in
this information with previously recorded information, and the center of the brain. The large cerebrum is the dominant
producing actions based on the results of the information brain structure, with many folds and crevices enveloping
synthesis. the diencephalon.
The brain is well protected, located within the cranium
of the skull. During development, the brain and skull are
growing simultaneously, so the shape of the cranial cavity
mirrors the shape of the brain.
309
310 EXERCISE 20 BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Before Going to Lab LAB ACTIVITY 1 Identification

of Major Brain Regions
1 Label the major brain regions in Figure 20.1.
1 Identify the major brain regions on human brain models,
charts, or use the search text box in Real Anatomy
(Nervous) to find these structures. ■
Sagittal
plane Cerebrum
Diencephalon:
Thalamus
Epithalamus
View Hypothalamus
Pineal gland
(part of epithalamus)
Brain stem:
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata Pituitary gland

Cerebellum
Spinal cord
POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
(a) Midsagittal section, medial view
SUPERIOR
POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

3
• brain stem
• cerebellum (cer-e-BELL-um)
• cerebrum (ce-REE-brum)
• diencephalon 4
2
1 _________________________
2 _________________________
3 _________________________
Spinal cord INFERIOR
4 _________________________
(b) Midsagittal section, medial view
FIGURE 20.1 Four major brain regions.

B. The Brain Stem 3. The Midbrain

The midbrain is a smaller area superior to the pons and
The brain stem is composed of 3 structures: the medulla inferior to the diencephalon, consisting of cerebral peduncles
(medull- = marrow) oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain. (ped- = foot) and the corpora quadrigemina (corpora =
body; quad- = four; gemin- = twin; i.e., 4 twin bodies). The
1. The Medulla Oblongata cerebral peduncles are white fibers that connect the upper
and lower brain areas, and the corpora quadrigemina are
The first brain structure, the medulla oblongata, is composed of 2 superior colliculi (colliculus = small mound)
immediately superior to the spinal cord and is the most and 2 inferior colliculi. The superior colliculi have reflex
vital part of the brain because it houses the respiratory centers involved in eye, head, and neck movements with
and cardiovascular control centers. The respiratory center visual stimulation, whereas the inferior colliculi have
controls the rate and depth of breathing, and the cardio- reflex centers involved in auditory stimuli that result in head
vascular center is responsible for the rate and force of the and trunk movements. The midbrain is observed best from a
heartbeat and blood pressure reflexes. Other reflex centers midsagittal section, medial view. It spans from the dorsal to
in the medulla are for coughing, vomiting, and sneezing. the ventral side of the brain stem.
2. The Pons Before Going to Lab
The pons (pons = bridge) is an expanded structure located 1 Label the brain stem structures on Figure 20.2(a) and (b).
superior to the medulla oblongata and anterior to the cer-
ebellum, and has respiratory centers that assist the medulla LAB ACTIVITY 2 The Brain Stem
oblongata in controlling breathing. The pons also relays
information to the diencephalon and the cerebellum. 1 Identify the brain stem structures on a human brain model,
chart, or use the search text box in Real Anatomy
SUPERIOR
POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
Superior
colliculus
1
Inferior
colliculus 5
2
3
4
Spinal cord
INFERIOR
(a) Midsagittal section, medial view
• cerebral peduncle 1 _____________________________________________________
• corpora quadrigemina (cor-POR-a quad-ri-GEM-i-na)
• medulla oblongata 2 _____________________________________________________
• midbrain
• pons 3 _____________________________________________________
4 _____________________________________________________
5 _____________________________________________________
FIGURE 20.2 Brain stem.

ANTERIOR
View
Midbrain
Pons
Middle cerebellar
Brain stem peduncle
Medulla
oblongata
Spinal cord
POSTERIOR
(b) Inferior aspect of brain
• medulla oblongata 6
(meh-DEW-la ob-lon-GAH-tah)
• midbrain
• pons Middle cerebellar
• spinal cord peduncle
6 ________________________________________ 7
8
7 ________________________________________
8 ________________________________________
9
9 ________________________________________
(c) Inferior aspect of brain
FIGURE 20.2 Brain stem, continued.
C. The Cerebellum smoothes and coordinates skilled skeletal muscle movements.

The cerebellum is connected to the brain stem by the
The cerebellum (cerebellum = little brain) is second in size superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles. Do not
to the cerebrum and is located inferior to it and posterior to confuse them with the cerebral peduncles.
the medulla and pons. There are 2 cerebellar hemispheres,
with a central area, the vermis, connecting them. When cut in Before Going to Lab
sagittal section, gray matter can be observed on the exterior, 1 Label the structures of the cerebellum in Figure 20.3(a)
with deeper white matter called the arbor vitae (arbor = and (b).
tree; vitae = living) appearing as branches of a tree. The
outer layer of gray matter is called the cerebellar cortex.
Like the cerebral cortex, the cerebellar cortex has folds LAB ACTIVITY 3 Cerebellum
that increase the surface area allowing for more neuron cell
bodies. The cerebellar folds are slender, pleated gyri or folia 1 Identify the structures of the cerebellum on a human
(folia = leaves) that look similar to pages in a book. The brain model, chart, or use the search text box in Real
cerebellum regulates posture and balance and, in addition, Anatomy (Nervous) to find these structures. ■
ANTERIOR
2
(a) Posterior view
• cerebellar (cer-e-BELL-ar) hemispheres
• folia (FO-lia) 3
• vermis (VER-mis)
1 __________________________________
2 __________________________________
POSTERIOR
3 __________________________________
(a) Superior view
(b) Sagittal view

• arbor vitae (white matter) Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen
• cerebellar cortex (gray matter)
• inferior colliculus
4 Cerebral peduncle
• medulla oblongata
Mammillary
• pons 5 body
• superior colliculus
8
4 __________________________________
6 Fourth
5 __________________________________ ventricle
6 __________________________________
7 9
7 __________________________________
8 __________________________________
9 __________________________________
FIGURE 20.3 The cerebellum. (b) Midsagittal section

D. The Diencephalon The hypothalamus includes the infundibulum and

mammillary bodies. The infundibulum (infundibulum =
The diencephalon (di- = two; -cephalon = brain) is funnel) is a stalk that connects the pituitary gland to the
located in the brain’s central area and has 3 main regions: hypothalamus. The mammillary bodies (mammilla =
the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the epithalamus. nipple)—two small, round masses located just posterior to
the infundibulum—are relay stations for smell and taste
reflexes.
1. The Thalamus Other structures that are observed in this area are the
The thalamus (thala- = inner chamber) is composed of optic chiasm and the pituitary gland. The optic chiasm
paired, egg-shaped bodies centrally located in the dienceph- (chi = χ, Greek letter chi, a crossing over), the area where
alon and makes up approximately 80% of this structure. the optic nerves cross, is anterior to the infundibulum. The
Each cerebral hemisphere contains half of the thalamus, pituitary gland looks like a large pea and is attached to
which is connected by a small bridge called the intermediate the end of the infundibulum. The hypothalamus controls
mass. The thalamus is the brain’s “grand central relay the pituitary gland.
station” because it is the principal relay station for sensory
fibers and some somatic motor fibers. Sensory fibers that 3. The Epithalamus
synapse in the thalamus are relayed to a particular area of The epithalamus (epi- = above) is superior and poste-
the cerebral cortex to be interpreted, and other fibers relay rior to the thalamus and includes the pineal (pineas =
messages to the somatic motor cortex. The thalamus also pinecone) gland or body, a small endocrine gland that
filters out unnecessary sensory information and is involved secretes the hormone melatonin.
in consciousness, emotions, learning, and memory.
Before Going to Lab

2. The Hypothalamus
1 Label the diencephalon structures in Figure 20.4(a), (b),
The hypothalamus (hypo- = below) is located below and (c). Refer to Figure 20.1 if necessary.
the thalamus and is a quadrangular-shaped structure. The
hypothalamus has important nuclei (a group of nerve cell
bodies) that control many body functions and homeostasis. LAB ACTIVITY 4 The Diencephalon
Some of the major functions include integrating and
controlling the pituitary gland and hormonal functions, 1 Identify the diencephalon structures listed on the human
autonomic functions, emotions and behavior, body brain model, chart, or use the search text box in Real
temperature, eating, and drinking. Anatomy (Nervous) to find these structures. ■
CEREBRUM
1 (a)
• diencephalon
2 4
• hypothalamus
3 (hypo-THAL-a-mus)
BRAIN STEM: • pineal (pi-NEE-al) gland
CEREBELLUM Midbrain (part of epithalamus)
• thalamus
Pons
1 ________________________
Medulla oblongata 2 ________________________

Spinal cord
3 ________________________
(a) Midsagittal section, medial view 4 ________________________
FIGURE 20.4 The diencephalon.

(b)
• hypothalamus
• infundibulum
(in-fun-DIB-u-lum)
• intermediate mass of 8
thalamus
• mammillary (MAM-mil-lary) 7
body
• pineal gland
• pituitary gland
• thalamus (THAL-a-mus)
5 ________________________
6 ________________________
6
7 ________________________
8 ________________________ 5 9
9 ________________________
10 ________________________
11 ________________________ Optic chiasm

10
11
(b) Sagittal section, magnified
Longitudinal
fissure Cerebral cortex
(gray matter)
12
(c)
• hypothalamus
• lateral ventricles
• thalamus
13
• third ventricles
14
12 ________________________
15
13 ________________________
Optic tract
14 ________________________
15 ________________________ (c) Frontal section
FIGURE 20.4 The diencephalon, continued.

E. The Cerebrum of fiber tracts in the cerebrum that are named according
to the direction of the fibers [Figure 20.5(a)]. Association
The cerebrum is made up of right and left cerebral fibers transmit nerve impulses within the same hemisphere,
hemispheres and is the largest and most complex division whereas commissural (commisura = connection) fibers
of the brain. The cerebrum is superior to and surrounds the transmit nerve impulses between the two hemispheres.
diencephalon and part of the brain stem. The cerebrum is Projection fibers are ascending and descending tracts that
the center of higher mental processes such as intelligence, project nervous impulses from inferior to superior brain
communication, learning and memory, reasoning, and areas or vice versa. The corpus callosum (corpus = body;
emotions. In addition, it interprets sensory input and initi- callosus = hard), a prominent commissural fiber tract that
ates skeletal muscle contraction. is readily observable in midsagittal sections of the brain,
connects the two cerebral hemispheres. The fornix looks
like a group of commissural fibers but is actually a tract
1. Organization of arched association fibers. The internal capsule, a large
of Cerebral Gray and White Matter group of projection fibers, contains sensory and motor
The 3 main regions of the cerebrum are the cerebral tracts that connect the cerebral cortex to the brain stem and
cortex (cortex = bark), white matter, and the deep basal spinal cord.
nuclei. The cerebral cortex (also known as the cortical area)
is the superficial cerebral gray matter on the exterior of the Before Going to Lab
cerebrum composed of nerve cell bodies and dendrites.
The cerebral cortex integrates sensory information, initi- 1 Label the gray and white matter in Figure 20.5(b).
ates motor output, and is also involved in emotions and
intellectual processes. Basal nuclei (ganglia = knot) are
areas of cerebral gray matter composed of paired nuclei LAB ACTIVITY 5 Organization of Gray
(clusters of neuron cell bodies in the CNS) that are found and White Matter
deep within each cerebral hemisphere. The basal nuclei in Cerebrum
control automatic skeletal muscle movement and are
involved with the limbic system or emotional brain. 1 Identify the cerebral gray and white matter on a human
Cerebral white matter lies deep to the outer cortex and coronal section of brain, brain model, chart, or use the
is composed mostly of myelinated axons that give it the search text box in Real Anatomy (Nervous) to find
white appearance. These axons are organized into three kinds these structures. ■
Commissural fibers
(Corpus callosum)
Association
fibers
Projection Lateral ventricles

fibers
Third ventricle
Cerebellum
(a) Frontal section
FIGURE 20.5 Gray and white matter in the cerebrum.

Longitudinal
fissure
Cerebral cortex
(gray matter)
Cerebral
(white matter)
Corpus callosum
Internal capsule (white matter)
(white matter)
Caudate nucleus
Fornix
(white matter) Basal nuclei
Putamen
Thalamus (deep grey
matter)
Globus
pallidus
Hypothalamus
(b) Frontal section
SUPERIOR
Superior
Frontal plane 2
through brain

3
4
Anterior
Lateral ventricle
Choroid plexus
5
1
6
Third ventricle
INFERIOR
(c) Frontal section
(b) 1 __________________________________ 4 __________________________________

• basal nuclei (gray matter)
• cerebral cortex (gray matter) 2 __________________________________ 5 __________________________________
• cerebral white matter
• corpus callosum (commissural fibers) 3 __________________________________ 6 __________________________________
• fornix (association fibers)
• internal capsule (projection fibers)
FIGURE 20.5 Gray and white matter in the cerebrum, continued.

2. Surface Features of the Cerebrum • lateral cerebral sulcus—shallow groove separating

frontal and temporal lobes
There are 4 lobes that compose the exterior of the cere- • parieto-occipital sulcus—shallow groove separating
brum, which are mainly named for the overlying cranial parietal and occipital lobes
bones. These lobes are the frontal, parietal, occipital, • longitudinal fissure—deep groove separating the
and temporal lobes. An inner lobe, the insula, lies deep 2 cerebral hemispheres at the midline
to the lateral cerebral fissure and is not visible from the • transverse fissure—deep groove separating the
exterior. Other obvious external anatomical features of the cerebrum from the cerebellum in the posterior/infe-
cerebrum include the following: rior part of the brain
• gyrus (gyros = circle; gyri, pl.)—elevation or fold
in the cerebral cortex; increases the surface area for Before Going to Lab
neuron cell bodies 1 Label the structures listed for Figure 20.6 and locate the
• sulcus (sulcus = furrow; sulci, pl.)—shallow groove longitudinal fissure on Figures 20.2(b) and 20.5(a).
between elevations
• central sulcus—shallow groove separating frontal
lobe from parietal lobe LAB ACTIVITY 6 External Features
• precentral gyrus—elevation located just anterior to of the Cerebrum
the central sulcus
• postcentral gyrus—elevation located just posterior 1 Identify the external features of the cerebrum on a brain
to the central sulcus model, chart, or use the search text box in Real Anatomy
Postcentral gyrus Central sulcus

Parietal lobe Precentral gyrus
(blue area) Frontal lobe
Parieto-occipital
sulcus Insula (gold area)
Occipital lobe
Lateral cerebral
sulcus
Transverse fissure
• central sulcus
Cerebellum Temporal lobe • frontal lobe
• insula
• occipital lobe
(a) Right lateral view • parietal lobe
• postcentral gyrus
• precentral gyrus
POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
• temporal lobe (cut)
1 (space) 6 • transverse fissure
2
3 (lobe) 7 (lobe) 1 __________________________________
2 __________________________________
3 __________________________________
4 __________________________________
8 (lobe)
5 __________________________________
9 (lobe)
4 (lobe)
6 __________________________________
7 __________________________________
5 (space)
8 __________________________________
Cerebellum
9 __________________________________
(b) Right lateral view with temporal lobe cut away
FIGURE 20.6 External features of the cerebrum.
3. Functional Areas • primary gustatory area—in each postcentral gyrus,

of the Cerebral Cortex just superior to the lateral sulcus; receives impulses
when the taste buds are stimulated
The cerebral cortex is composed of 3 types of functional • primary olfactory area—located on the medial
areas: motor, sensory, and association areas. Sensory areas side of each temporal lobe; cannot be seen from the
receive and interpret impulses from sensory receptors, lateral view; receives impulses when the olfactory
while motor areas initiate impulses to skeletal muscles. receptors of the nose are stimulated
Association areas, which perform complex integrative • primary visual area—in the posterior occipital
functions, receive and send information to multiple areas lobe; receives impulses from the thalamus when the
of the cortex via association fibers. The majority of the retina is stimulated
cortex is composed of association areas.
Selected Association Areas
Motor Areas • Wernicke’s area—located in left temporal and
• primary motor area—located in the precentral parietal lobes; recognizes spoken words, translates
gyrus of each frontal lobe; initiates impulses to words into thoughts, and possibly helps us sound out
skeletal muscles strange or new words
• Broca’s speech area—located superior to the lateral • somatosensory, visual, and auditory association
sulcus and anterior to the primary motor cortex, areas—larger areas adjacent to the corresponding
usually in the left hemisphere; initiates impulses that sensory cortex; integrate sensory information from
result in speech the sensory cortex with past experiences allowing
us, for example, to identify objects by touch or to
Sensory Areas identify sound as music or speech
• primary somatosensory area—located in the
postcentral gyrus of each parietal lobe; receives
nerve impulses for touch, proprioception, pain, and Before Going to Lab
temperature 1 Label the functional areas of the cortex in Figure 20.7.
• primary auditory area—located in each temporal
lobe across the lateral sulcus from the gustatory area;
receives impulses when the auditory receptors of the
ear are stimulated
LAB ACTIVITY 7 Functional Areas
of Cerebral Cortex
1 Identify functional areas of the cerebral cortex on a
brain model or chart. ■
• Broca’s speech area (dotted area)
• central sulcus
• primary auditory area
• primary gustatory (GUS-tah-tory) area
3 4 5
• primary motor area
• primary somatosensory (so-ma-to-SEN-
sory) area
• primary visual area
• Wernicke’s area (dotted area) 2
1 ______________________________________
2 ______________________________________
3 ______________________________________ 1
4 ______________________________________
5 ______________________________________
6
6 ______________________________________
7 ______________________________________ 7
8 ______________________________________ ANTERIOR Left lateral view 8 POSTERIOR
FIGURE 20.7 Functional areas of the cerebral cortex.

4. Encephalography anterior cranial fossae support the frontal lobes of the

cerebrum; the middle cranial fossae support portions of
Millions of brain neurons close to the surface of the the temporal and parietal lobes of the cerebrum and the
cerebral cortex collectively create action potentials (nerve diencephalon; the posterior cranial fossae support por-
impulses or electrical currents) that can be detected by tions of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes of the
electrodes positioned on the scalp. The electrodes are con- cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem.
nected with wires to a computer, and the electrical currents
are displayed on a screen as brain waves. The record of
brain waves is called an electroencephalogram (EEG). 2. Cranial Meninges
The four main types of brain waves in an EEG, Alpha, There are 3 cranial meninges (connective tissue
Beta, Theta, and Delta, can be recognized by their char- membranes): the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia
acteristic patterns (Figure 21.8). These brain waves differ mater. The dura mater (dura = hard; mater = mother) is the
in frequency (cycles per second) in the various areas of the first meninx (sing.) located deep to the cranial bones. It is
brain. Neurologists use EEGs diagnostically for many situ- composed of 2 layers: the periosteal layer, which is a tough
ations, including epilepsy, coma, brain disease, dementia, membrane attached to the cranial bones, and the meningeal
brain death, and to study sleep disorders and monitor brain layer, which is exterior to the arachnoid mater. The 2 dural
activity during general anesthesia. layers split to form the dural sinuses that eventually drain
cranial blood into the jugular veins. The superior sagittal
sinus, located superior to the longitudinal fissure, is one
Alpha of the main dural sinuses. The double-layered dura mater
extends deep into the longitudinal fissure forming the falx
( falx = sickle-shaped) cerebri, into the transverse fissure
Beta forming the tentorium (tent) cerebelli, and between the
cerebellar hemispheres forming the falx cerebelli.
The arachnoid (arachnoid = spider-like) mater is the
Theta
2nd meninx located deep to the dura mater. Projections
of the arachnoid mater into the dural sinuses are called
arachnoid villi (villi = tiny projections). The pia (pia =
Delta delicate) mater is the thin, inner meninx. It hugs and over-
lays the cerebral cortex, following each gyrus and sulcus.
1 sec Between the arachnoid and pia is the subarachnoid space.
FIGURE 20.8 Types of brain waves recorded in an
electroencephalogram (EEG).
Before Going to Lab
1 Observe the cranial meninges in Figure 20.9(a).
LAB ACTIVITY 8 Encephalography
2 Label the structures in Figure 20.9(b).
1 Complete Biopac Laboratory Guide Experiment: The
Effect of Mental and Sensory Stimulation on Brain
Wave Patterns. ■ LAB ACTIVITY 9 Cranial Bones and
Cranial Meninges
F. Protection of the Brain 1 Identify the cranial fossae in the cranial floor of the
skull.
The brain is protected both physically and chemically by
2 Using a preserved human brain or the search text box in
cranial bones, the blood-brain barrier, the cranial meninges,
Real Anatomy (Nervous), identify the meninges.
and cerebrospinal fluid.
3 Using a brain model, preserved human brain, or the
search text box in Real Anatomy (Nervous), show
1. Cranial Bones where the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli would be
The cranial bones form a vault called the cranium, which found. ■
surrounds and protects the brain. The floor of the cranium
contains depressions—the anterior, middle, and poste-
rior cranial fossae—which support parts of the brain. The
Frontal plane
Superior sagittal sinus
Skin
Parietal bone of
cranium
Subarachnoid
space
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater
Falx cerebri Cerebral cortex
(a) Frontal section
• arachnoid mater • parietal bone 1 ________________________ 6 ________________________

(a-RAK-noid MAH-ter) • pia (PEE-ah) mater
• arachnoid villus • subarachnoid (sub-a- 2 ________________________ 7 ________________________
(VIL-us) RAK-noid) space
• cerebral (ce-REE-bral) • superior sagittal 3 ________________________ 8 ________________________
cortex (SA-jih-tahl) sinus
4 ________________________ 9 ________________________
• dura mater • white matter
• falx cerebri (falks 5 ________________________ 10 ________________________
ce-REE-bree)
Frontal plane 5
Skin
7
8
1 9
2 10
(b) Frontal section through skull.
FIGURE 20.9 Cranial meninges.

3. Cerebrospinal Fluid and between the pons and the cerebellum. Lateral and median
Ventricles of the Brain apertures or openings allow the CSF to flow from the fourth
ventricle into the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) constantly bathes the brain and the spinal cord. CSF also flows through the central canal
and spinal cord with oxygen, nutrients, and vital chemi- of the spinal cord and back out into the subarachnoid space.
cals. Although different in content, CSF is made from Just as CSF enters the brain ventricles from the blood-
blood plasma that leaks out of specialized, tiny blood ves- stream, it is returned to the blood by reabsorption through
sels (capillaries) called the choroid plexus (choroid = the arachnoid villi (tiny projections) located in the dural
membrane-like; plexus = pleated) and passes through sinuses, especially the superior sagittal sinus.
ependymal cells into 4 small brain cavities or ventricles.
The ependymal cells have cilia that move the CSF in
one direction. There are choroid plexuses in the roof of Before Going to Lab
all four ventricles. A lateral ventricle is located in each 1 Label the structures in Figure 20.10(a), (b), and (c).
cerebral hemisphere with a thin membrane, the septum
pellucidum (septum = partition; pellucid = transparent),
separating the 2 ventricles anteriorly. Each arched lateral LAB ACTIVITY 10 CSF Circulation
ventricle has an interventricular foramen that opens
medially into the third ventricle. The third ventricle is 1 Identify these structures on a human brain model, chart,
medially located between the paired masses of the thala- or use the search text box in Real Anatomy (Nervous)
mus and is narrower and smaller than the other ventricles. to find these structures.
Connecting the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle is a 2 With your laboratory partner, trace a drop of CSF
thin tube, the cerebral aqueduct (aqua = water; duct = from its origin in a lateral ventricle through the other
way; i.e., waterway). The fourth ventricle is located ventricles and subarachnoid space, and follow it until it
is reabsorbed into the bloodstream (Figure 20.10c). ■
Superior sagittal sinus (blue)
Falx cerebri
Corpus callosum
1
Septum pellucidum
2
Cerebrum 6
3 7
• cerebral aqueduct
• arachnoid villus
Cerebellum Tentorium cerebelli
• choroid plexus
LATERAL APERTURE • fourth ventricle
4
• lateral ventricle
MEDIAN APERTURE
• subarachnoid space
• third ventricle
Frontal SPINAL CORD

1 ______________________________________
plane
2 ______________________________________
SUBARACHNOID SPACE
(surrounding spinal cord) 3 ______________________________________
View
4 ______________________________________
5 ______________________________________
6 ______________________________________
(a) Frontal section of brain and spinal cord 7 ______________________________________
FIGURE 20.10 Ventricles of the brain and cerebral spinal fluid.

• central canal of the spinal cord

• cerebral aqueduct (AH-que-duct)
• fourth ventricle
• interventricular (in-ter-ven-TRIK-u-lar) 8
foramen
• lateral ventricles
• third ventricle 9
10
8 ______________________________________
9 ______________________________________
11
10 ______________________________________ 12
11 ______________________________________
12 ______________________________________ 13
Spinal cord
13 ______________________________________
(b) Right lateral view (ventricles superimposed)
14
15
16
17
18
19
• arachnoid villus (a-RACH-noid VIL-us) 20
• central canal
• cerebral aqueduct
21
• choroid plexus (CHOR-oid PLEX-us)
• fourth ventricle
• lateral ventricle
• subarachnoid (sub-ah-RAK-noid) space 22
• superior sagittal sinus
• third ventricle
14 ______________________________________
15 ______________________________________
16 ______________________________________
17 ______________________________________
18 ______________________________________
19 ______________________________________
20 ______________________________________
21 ______________________________________
22 ______________________________________ (c) Midsagittal section of brain and spinal cord
FIGURE 20.10 Ventricles of the brain and cerebrospinal fluid, continued.

G. Sheep Brain Dissection • The small abducens nerves (VI) are found medial
and slightly posterior to the trigeminal nerves, aris-
ing from the pons.
SAFETY NOTE: Use disposable gloves, safety glasses, and 5 Identify midbrain structures (Figure 20.13).
a lab coat when handling preserved material. • Carefully pull the cerebellum away from the cere-
brum. Identify the pineal body, superior colliculi,
and inferior colliculi.
Remember that preserved material does not look like a 6 Identify midsagittal section structures (Figure 20.14).
fresh specimen. Usually more detail may be observed in a • Using a sharp knife or scalpel, carefully make a
preserved brain because the tissue is firmer. midsagittal section.
• Locate the brain stem components: the medulla
oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain. Compare
LAB ACTIVITY 11 Dissection this with your human brain model.
of Sheep Brain • Identify the arbor vitae in the cerebellum.
• Note the cerebral aqueduct and the fourth
1 Rinse the sheep brain to remove preservative. ventricle.
2 Observe meninges and main brain regions. • Identify the thalamus, corpus collosum, septum
• Examine the brain to see if the tough, outer dura pellucidum, fornix, and lateral ventricles.
mater is present. If present, note the falx cerebri 7 Observe a coronal section.
and tentorium cerebelli. Carefully remove the dura • Observe the coronal section your instructor may have
mater. as a demonstration. Note the gray matter, white
• Now look for the stringy, web-like arachnoid mater matter, longitudinal fissure, corpus callosum,
beneath and adhering to the dura mater. Deep to this thalamus, lateral ventricles, and third ventricle.
membrane is the very thin pia mater that follows the • Observe the transverse or horizontal section your
contours of the gyri and sulci. instructor may have as a demonstration. Identify the
• Compare the sheep brain with the main external gray matter, white matter, and ventricles.
regions of the human brain. Identify the cerebrum,
8 Clean up as directed by your instructor.
brain stem (medulla and pons), and cerebellum.
9 Answer Discussion Questions with your lab group.
3 Identify dorsal structures (Figure 20.11).
• With the dorsal side up, identify the cerebral hemi-
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
spheres, gyri, sulci, longitudinal fissure, and
Sheep Brain Dissections
transverse fissure.
• Identify the 4 main lobes of the brain—frontal, 1 Why are the olfactory tracts not called olfactory nerves?
parietal, occipital, and temporal.
• At the longitudinal fissure, gently separate the 2
parts and look down between them for the thick band 2 How does the human mammillary body look different
of white fibers, the corpus callosum. from the sheep?
4 Identify ventral structures (Figure 20.12).
• Place the sheep brain ventral side up.
• Identify the olfactory bulb, olfactory tract, optic 3 How do the three parts of the sheep brain stem compare
nerve, optic chiasm, and optic tract. to the human brain stem?
• Posterior to these structures, locate the one large
mammillary body.
• If present, identify the infundibulum and pituitary 4 Does the arbor vitae in the cerebellum of the sheep brain
gland. look similar or different from the arbor vitae of the
• Look at the three parts of the brain stem—the human brain?
midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
• The large trigeminal nerves (V) are located laterally
at the junction of the pons and medulla. ■
Frontal lobe
Left cerebral
hemisphere Right cerebral
hemisphere
Parietal lobe
Sulci
Longitudinal
fissure
Gyri
Occipital lobe
Vermis of
cerebellum
Cerebellar
hemispheres
Medulla
oblongata
Spinal cord
FIGURE 20.11 Dorsal view of the sheep brain.
Olfactory bulb
Olfactory tract
Optic (II) nerve

Optic chiasm
Infundibulum
Optic tract (pituitary gland removed)
Mammillary body
Cerebral peduncle
Pons
Trigeminal nerve (V)
Abducens nerve (VI)
Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord
FIGURE 20.12 Ventral view of the sheep brain.

Cerebrum
Occipital lobe
Pineal body
Inferior
colliculi
Superior
colliculi
Cerebellum
FIGURE 20.13 Posterior view of the midbrain structures of the sheep brain.
Pineal body
Thalamus
Lateral Fornix
ventricle
Cerebrum
Transverse fissure
Corpus
collosum Corpora quadrigemina
Cerebellum
Optic
chiasm Fourth ventricle
Pituitary gland Pons
Mammillary body Medulla oblongata
FIGURE 20.14 Midsagittal section of the sheep brain.

A. Brain Structure
20
Label the structures in Figures 20.15(a) and (b).
(a)
1 ______________________________________
11
1
2 ______________________________________
2
4
3 ______________________________________
3
4 ______________________________________
5
5 ______________________________________
8 6 12
7 6 ______________________________________
9 7 ______________________________________
10
8 ______________________________________
POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
(a) Midsagittal section, medial view 9 ______________________________________
ANTERIOR 10 ______________________________________
13 11 ______________________________________
14 12 ______________________________________
15 (b)
16 13 ______________________________________
17 14 ______________________________________
18 15 ______________________________________
19
16 ______________________________________
20 17 ______________________________________
18 ______________________________________
21
19 ______________________________________
22
20 ______________________________________
21 ______________________________________
POSTERIOR
22 ______________________________________
(b) Inferior aspect of brain
FIGURE 20.15 Brain structure. 327

B. Functions of Brain Regions

Give the brain region for the functions described.
1. Contains vital centers that regulate heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, vomiting, coughing
2. Smoothes and coordinates skilled skeletal muscle movement; also posture and balance or
equilibrium
3. Secretes melatonin that controls the sleep-wake cycle
4. Controls and integrates the autonomic nervous system; regulates hormones, emotional
behavior, temperature, eating, and drinking behavior
5. Interprets sensory input, controls skilled skeletal muscle movements, and is involved in
emotional and intellectual processes
6. Helps control breathing; conducts impulses to and from the cerebellum, midbrain, and
medulla
7. Relays all sensory input to the cerebral cortex; involved in skeletal muscle actions and
memory processing
8. Coordinates visual and auditory reflexes
9. Coordinates gross, automatic muscle movements; also involved with the limbic system
10. White fiber tracts communicating between hemispheres
C. Flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid

Fill in the numbered blanks with the name of the structure that corresponds with the number in the following paragraph.
Fluid for the CSF is derived from the bloodstream. The sites of CSF formation are the (1), special tiny capillaries located
in the walls of (2), (3), and (4). Cells that line the ventricles have cilia that move the CSF and are called (5). The two
lateral ventricles are separated by a thin membrane called the (6). CSF flows by cilia movement from the two lateral
ventricles through the interventricular foramen to the (7). From here, the CSF flows through the (8) into the fourth ventricle.
The CSF leaves the fourth ventricle through three openings: the median aperture and two lateral apertures. CSF is now
located in the (9) space around the brain, and circulates all around the cerebrum and cerebellum. CSF continues to flow
into the inner part of the spinal cord by flowing through the tiny (10) of the spinal cord, as well as around the exterior of
the spinal cord in the (11) space. Because CSF is continually being made at the rate of about 20 mL/hr, it has to exit back
into the bloodstream by being reabsorbed through the (12) that protrude into the dural venous sinuses. The venous sinus
that overlies the brain superiorly is called the (13).
1. ____________________________ 6. ____________________________ 11. ____________________________
2. ____________________________ 7. ____________________________ 12. ____________________________
3. ____________________________ 8. ____________________________ 13. ____________________________
4. ____________________________ 9. ____________________________
5. ____________________________ 10. ____________________________

______________________________
EXERC ISE
20
1
2
3
4
5
FIGURE 20.16 Midsagittal section of the human brain MRI.
A. MRI Scan of the Human Brain

Identify the structures in Figure 20.16, midsagittal view.
1. ___________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________
329
Superior ANTERIOR
Transverse plane
through brain
Anterior 6
8
9
10
Stephen A. Kieffer
POSTERIOR
FIGURE 20.17 Human brain, transverse section.
B. Transverse Section of a Human Brain

Identify the structures in Figure 20.17, a transverse section.
6. ___________________________________________
7. ___________________________________________
8. ___________________________________________
9. ___________________________________________
10. ___________________________________________
Superior Sagittal plane SUPERIOR
through brain
14
Anterior
15
11
12
13

POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
INFERIOR
FIGURE 20.18 Human brain, sagittal section.
C. Sagittal Section of Human Brain

Identify the structures in Figure 20.18, sagittal section.
11. ___________________________________________
12. ___________________________________________
13. ___________________________________________
14. ___________________________________________
15. ___________________________________________
SUPERIOR
19
20
16

17
18
Spinal cord
Body of cervical
vertebra
POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
INFERIOR
Right lateral view
FIGURE 20.19 Human brain, lateral view.
D. Brain Injury
Match the brain injury to the appropriate change in function. Use Figure 20.19 to locate the area injured.
a. cessation of breathing
b. loss of equilibrium
c. loss of use of left arm
d. loss of vision
e. loss of pain localization in the shoulder
________ 16. The effect of a blow to the back of the head that damages this area.
________ 17. The effect of alcohol on this area.
________ 18. The effect of a head injury (i.e., from diving into a pool) that forces the dens into this area.
________ 19. The effect of a stroke that damages this area.
________ 20. The effect of a stroke that damages this area.

E X E R C I S E
Cranial Nerves
21
1 Identify the 12 pairs of cranial nerves by name • human brain models, charts, or use Real Anatomy
and Roman numeral on brain models and/or (Nervous)
preserved human brains • skull with or without cranial nerves
2 State the function of the 12 pairs of cranial • preserved human brain (if available)
nerves
• Testing Cranial Nerve Function: spice or aromatic
3 Test cranial nerve function oil, penlight, cotton, ice water, sugar, quinine or
4 Identify specific cranial nerves on the sheep brain bitter food (vinegar, turmeric, unsweetened
cocoa powder, coffee), tuning fork, tongue
depressors
T he 12 pairs of cranial nerves are part of the

peripheral nervous system. They are numbered
from anterior to posterior with Roman numerals
I–XII. Cranial nerves originate from various ventral areas
of the brain and exit the cranial cavity through foramina to
sense of smell), optic, oculomotor (oculo- = eye; motor =
mover), trochlear (trochlea = pulley), trigeminal (tri- =
three; -gemini = twins), abducens (ab- = away; -ducens
= to lead), facial, vestibulocochlear (vestibulo- = vestibule
of ear/equilibrium; -cochlear = cochlea of ear/hearing),
reach their destinations, which are primarily in the head glossopharyngeal (glosso- = tongue; -pharyngeal =
and neck. throat), vagus (vagus = wandering), accessory, and
hypoglossal (hypo- = below; -glossal = tongue). The
vagus nerve has the distinction of being different from
the other 11 cranial nerves in its distribution. As its word
A. Name and Location derivative states, it is the “wandering nerve” that branches
of Cranial Nerves extensively and innervates the viscera of the thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities.
The cranial nerve’s name sometimes indicates the struc-
ture it innervates or its function. The names of the cranial
nerves I–XII are in order as follows: olfactory (olfactus =
333
334 EXERCISE 21 CRANIAL NERVES
You may want to use the following mnemonic device

to help remember the names of the cranial nerves in order: Before Going to Lab
“On Old Olympus’ Towering Top A Friendly Viking Grew 1 Learn the mnemonic for recalling the names of the cra-
Vines And Hops.” The bold first letter of each word matches nial nerves.
with the first letter in the name of the cranial nerve. 2 Label the cranial nerves on Figure 21.1.
The olfactory nerves are very small and will not be
seen in Figure 21.1. The olfactory bulbs and tracts can be 3 In Figure 21.2, identify the cranial nerve(s) that exit
observed and are marked instead. each foramen by writing the name(s) in the blank.
When locating the foramen for the cranial nerves, note 4 Learn the Roman numeral, name, and function of each
that cranial nerves III, IV, VI, and the ophthalmic divi- cranial nerve.
sion of V, all exit the same foramen, the superior orbital
fissure. Cranial nerves IX, X, and XI all exit the jugular
foramen. Each of the other 7 foramina has one cranial
nerve exiting. LAB ACTIVITY 1 Name and Location
of Cranial Nerves
1 Identify each cranial nerve on a preserved human brain,
human brain model, chart, or use the search text box in
Real Anatomy (Nervous) to locate these structures.
2 Locate the foramen for each cranial nerve on a skull
with or without cranial nerves. Refer to Table 21.1 and
Figure 21.2.
3 Quiz your lab partner on cranial nerve names and
functions. ■
TA B L E 2 1 . 1 Foramen of Cranial Nerves

NUMBER NAME FORAMEN
I Olfactory Olfactory foramina of cribriform plate

II Optic Optic foramen
III Oculomotor Superior orbital fissure
IV Trochlear Superior orbital fissure
V Trigeminal Ophthalmic—Superior orbital fissure
Maxillary—Foramen rotundum
Mandibular—Foramen ovale
VI Abducens Superior orbital fissure
VII Facial Stylomastoid foramen
VIII Vestibulocochlear Internal auditory meatus
IX Glossopharyngeal Jugular foramen
X Vagus Jugular foramen
XI Accessory Jugular foramen
XII Hypoglossal Hypoglossal canal
EXERCISE 21 CRANIAL NERVES 335
ANTERIOR
View
Olfactory bulb
Olfactory tract
Optic nerve
Trochlear nerve Oculomotor nerve

Trigeminal nerve
Abducens nerve
Vestibulo- Facial nerve
cochlear nerve Glossopharyngeal
Vagus nerve nerve
Hypoglossal nerve
Accessory nerve
• abducens (ab-DUE-senz)
POSTERIOR
• accessory
• facial (a) Cranial nerves of human brain
• glossopharyngeal
(gloss-oh-fah-RIN-jeal)
• hypoglossal (hypo-GLOSS-al)
• oculomotor (ok-u-low-MO-tor)
• olfactory (OHL-fac-tory) tract
• optic
• trigeminal (tri-GEM-i-nal)
• trochlear (TROH-klee-ur) CRANIAL NERVES:
• vagus (VAY-gus) 1
• vestibulocochlear
2
(ves-tib-u-lo-COKE-lee-ur)
3
1 _________________________________
4
2 _________________________________
5
3 _________________________________
6
4 _________________________________
5 _________________________________ 8
6 _________________________________
9
7 _________________________________
10
8 _________________________________
11
9 _________________________________
12
10 _________________________________
11 _________________________________
12 _________________________________ (b) Inferior aspect of brain
FIGURE 21.1 Cranial nerves of the human brain.

Location of
Location of superior orbital
Axons pass through
optic foramen fissure
olfactory foramina Hypoglossal
canal
Cerebrum
Foramen
rotundum
Foramen
ovale
Stylomastoid

foramen
Internal
auditory meatus
Location of
jugular foramen
Cerebellum
Posterolateral view of dissected brain

with cranial nerves
• abducens 1. foramen ovale _____________________________________________________________________________

• accessory
• facial 2. foramen rotundum ________________________________________________________________________
• glossopharyngeal
• hypoglossal 3. hypoglossal canal __________________________________________________________________________
• oculomotor
4. internal auditory meatus ___________________________________________________________________
• olfactory
• optic 5. jugular foramen ___________________________________________________________________________
• trigeminal
• trochlear 6. axons pass through olfactory foramina ______________________________________________________
• vagus
• vestibulocochlear 7. optic foramen _____________________________________________________________________________
8. stylomastoid foramen ______________________________________________________________________
9. superior orbital fissure _____________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 21.2 Cranial nerves and foramina.
EXERCISE 21 CRANIAL NERVES 337
B. Testing shown to have some motor activity, but its main func-
tion is sensory. Two of the cranial nerves have branches.
Cranial Nerve Function The trigeminal nerve (V) has 3 branches: ophthalmic,
maxillary, and mandibular. The accessory nerve (XI) has
Not all cranial nerves function in the same way. Some cra- a cranial portion and spinal portion. In addition to somatic
nial nerves are primarily special sensory in function, others motor fibers, cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X also have
are primarily motor in function, and still others have both parasympathetic motor fibers.
sensory and motor fibers. A mnemonic device for recalling An easy way to remember the names of the cranial
the function of cranial nerves is: “Some Say Marry Money nerves that innervate the eyeball is by using the follow-
But My Brother Says Bad Business Marry Money.” The ing formula: LR6SO4 = the lateral rectus muscle (LR) is
3 types are: S = sensory; M = motor; B = both sensory innervated by cranial nerve VI; the superior oblique muscle
and motor (mixed nerve). Motor nerves also have sensory (SO) is innervated by cranial nerve IV; the other 4 external
proprioceptors located in the muscles they innervate, but muscles of the eyeball are innervated by cranial nerve III.
their main function is motor. Cranial nerve VIII has been
TA B L E 2 1 . 2 Cranial Nerve Function, Distribution, and Action

NUMBER AND NAME DISTRIBUTION ACTION
I Olfactory Nasal mucosa Smell

II Optic Eye Vision
III Oculomotor Levator palpebrae superioris; four extrinsic eye Movement of eyelid; movement of
muscles (inferior oblique, superior rectus, eyeball; accommodation of lens;
medial rectus, inferior rectus); ciliary muscle pupillary constriction
(intrinsic eye muscle); iris muscles of eye
(intrinsic eye muscles)
IV Trochlear Superior oblique muscle of eyeball Movement of eyeball
V Trigeminal Ophthalmic branch (eye and forehead) Cutaneous sensations from ophthalmic,
Maxillary branch maxillary, and mandibular areas;
Mandibular branch chewing
VI Abducens Lateral rectus muscle of eyeball Movement of eyeball
VII Facial Anterior 2/3 of tongue; facial, scalp, and neck Taste; facial expression; secretion
muscles; lacrimal glands; salivary glands of tears; salivation
VIII Vestibulocochlear Semicircular canals and cochlea of ear Equilibrium and hearing
IX Glossopharyngeal Posterior 1/3 of tongue; pharyngeal muscles; Taste; swallowing and speech; secretion
parotid gland of saliva
X Vagus Pharyngeal muscles and epiglottis; smooth Taste and somatic sensation from
muscles of thorax and GI tract; cardiac pharynx and epiglottis; swallowing,
muscle; glands of GI tract coughing, and voice production; smooth
muscle contraction of GI tract; slows heart
rate; secretion by digestive glands
XI Accessory Cranial portion—muscles of pharynx, larynx, Swallowing
and soft palate
Spinal portion—sternocleidomastoid and Movement of head and shoulders
trapezius muscles
XII Hypoglossal Tongue muscles Speech and swallowing
LAB ACTIVITY 2 Testing SAFETY NOTE: INSTRUCTIONS FOR TESTING

Cranial Nerve Function CRANIAL NERVE FUNCTION
1 Perform the cranial nerve tests to determine if function Anything that was used in the mouth (tongue depressor
is normal, consulting Table 21.2 for each nerve action. or cotton-tipped swab or applicator) needs to be imme-
Record results in Table 21.3 by circling either normal diately placed in an autoclavable bag after use. Do not
(N) or abnormal (A) for each nerve. place these used items on your lab bench.
2 Clean up as directed by your instructor. ■
TA B L E 2 1 . 3 Testing Cranial Nerve Function

NUMBER CRANIAL NERVE QUICK TEST R E S U LT S
I • Sniff aromatic oil, spice, or coffee grounds (ability to smell is normal) N A

II • Read a Snellen eye chart at 20 ft. (ability to read is normal) N A
III, IV, VI • Observe eyelids (eyelid not drooping is normal) N A
• Look up, down, medially, laterally, upper lateral, lower lateral
(ability to move eyeball is normal) N A
• Shine penlight on pupils (constriction is normal) N A
V • Lightly touch the cornea of the subject with a wisp of cotton
(blinking is normal) N A
• Subject bites down on tongue depressor; try to pull it out
(good resistance to pulling is normal) N A
VII • Have subject smile, raise eyebrows, whistle, and close the eyes
(ability to do these actions is normal) N A
• Check tip of tongue for taste with sugar (ability to taste is normal) N A
VIII • Use a tuning fork to check hearing in each ear (ability to hear is normal) N A
• Have the subject stand straight with eyes closed (absence of swaying is normal) N A
IX, X • Have subject say, “Ah”; check uvula position with mouth open (midline is normal) N A
• Using a cotton-tipped applicator, gently touch the subject’s uvula to elicit a gag reflex
(gag response is normal) N A
• The posterior 1/3 of tongue can be tested with cotton applicator dipped in quinine
(taste is normal) N A
XI • Have subject shrug shoulders against resistance as you are holding them down
(both sides having equal strength is normal) N A
XII • Ask your lab partner to stick out and retract his/her tongue
(tongue not deviating to one side is normal) N A
A. Cranial Nerve Identification

21
Give the Roman numeral for the 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
____ 1. Abducens ____ 7. Olfactory

____ 2. Accessory ____ 8. Optic
____ 3. Facial ____ 9. Trigeminal
____ 4. Glossopharyngeal ____ 10. Trochlear
____ 5. Hypoglossal ____ 11. Vagus
____ 6. Oculomotor ____ 12. Vestibulocochlear
Identify the cranial nerves by writing the name in the blank.

ANTERIOR
1 _________________________________
2 _________________________________
CRANIAL NERVES: 3 _________________________________
1
4 _________________________________
2
3 5 _________________________________
4
6 _________________________________
5
7 _________________________________
6
7 8 _________________________________
8 9 _________________________________
9 10 _________________________________
10 11 _________________________________
11 12 _________________________________
12
POSTERIOR
FIGURE 21.3 Cranial nerves. 339
B. Cranial Nerve Function

Identify if each cranial nerve is mainly sensory, motor, or both.
S = sensory M = motor B = both sensory and motor
____ 1. Olfactory ____ 7. Facial
____ 2. Optic ____ 8. Vestibulocochlear
____ 3. Oculomotor ____ 9. Glossopharyngeal
____ 4. Trochlear ____ 10. Vagus
____ 5. Trigeminal ____ 11. Accessory
____ 6. Abducens ____ 12. Hypoglossal
C. Cranial Nerve Action—Matching

Choose the action of the cranial nerve and write the letter next to the cranial number.
____ I. A. Movement of lateral rectus muscle
____ II. B. Speech and swallowing—tongue muscles
____ III. C. Taste; facial expression; tears; salivation
____ IV. D. Equilibrium and hearing
____ V. E. Smell
____ VI. F. Movement of superior oblique muscle
____ VII. G. Movement of head and shoulders—sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles
____ VIII. H. Vision
____ IX. I. Posterior 1/3 of tongue; taste, swallowing and speech; secretion of saliva
____ X. J. Cutaneous sensations from ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular areas; chewing
____ XI. K. Taste; pharynx and epiglottis sensations; swallowing, coughing; voice production; smooth
muscle of GI tract; secretion of digestive glands; slows heart rate
____ XII. L. Movement of 4 extrinsic eye muscles; accommodation of lens; pupillary constriction

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E X E R C I S E 1 8 SPINAL NERVES 291

D. Major Nerves from the

Before Going to Lab

E. Major Nerves from the L2

Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses L4

The lumbar plexus is made up of anterior (ventral) rami from

Before Going to Lab

LAB ACTIVITY 5 Major Nerves 6

from the Lumbar

SAFETY NOTE: Wear safety glasses and gloves when using

F. Dissection of Nerve • femoral (FEM-o-rul) nerve 1 ________________________

Femoral Iliacus, quadriceps femoris, sartorius, pectineus

Reviewing Your Knowledge E X E R C I S E

A. Connective Tissue Coverings

______________________ 1. Covers unmyelinated or myelinated axons

______________________ 2. Covers fascicles

______________________ 3. Covers nerves

B. Rami of Spinal Nerves

______________________ 2. Branches that belong to the sympathetic nervous system

______________________ 3. Branch that forms nerves serving the limbs

C. Major Nerves of the Nerve Plexuses

______________________ 9. common fibular n.

______________________ 10. pudendal n.

3. There are ______ pairs of spinal nerves.

4. The nerve that supplies the posterior thigh _________________.

5. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of coccygeal nerves.

7. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of thoracic nerves.

8. The nerve that supplies the anterior thigh is the _________________.

9. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of sacral nerves.

10. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of lumbar nerves.

12. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of cervical nerves.

15. The _________________ nerve supplies the biceps brachii muscles.

16. The _________________ nerve supplies the diaphragm.

17. The _________________ nerve supplies most hand muscles.

18. The _________________ nerve supplies the flexor carpi radialis.

Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge E X E R C I S E

Identify the correct nerve for each question.

_______________________ 8. Greenstick fracture of the tibia

_______________________ 9. Sunburn on the skin over deltoid muscles

_______________________ 10. Splinter in digit 5 of the hand

R eflexes are rapid, involuntary motor

3. Integrating center. The integrating center is located

Plantar flexion of foot when Achilles

Salivation in response to lemon juice

Blinking in response to touching the

Flexing of arm in response to touching

FIGURE 19.1 Reflex arc components.

B. Reflex Testing • Sensory neuron: Sensory axons carry nerve impulses

• Although the grading is subjective, grade the exten-

FIGURE 19.2 Patellar reflex arc.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

2 During the patellar reflex, are the motor neurons supplying

3 Describe the effect that clasping and pulling the hands

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

4. Achilles Reflex (Ankle Jerk) 5. Plantar Flexion

2 Name the antagonistic muscles that are inhibited by

Reviewing Your Knowledge E X E R C I S E

2. How many neurons are in a monosynaptic reflex arc? _______

Name ___________________________ Date _ Section ______________________

Name ___________________________ Date _ Section ______________________

(b) 1 4

• arachnoid mater • parietal bone 1 6