CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The sequence of the content is the same with that of the STATEMENT OF THE
PROBLEM.

Normally, it features the following contents in chronological order:

1. Statistical Tables and Graphs
2. Textual Presentation
3. Inferences or Interpretation

Presentation of Data

Presentation is a way of arranging data into logical, chronological and significant

categories and classifications. There are three ways of presenting data: textual, tabular and
graphical.

A. Tabular Presentation

Tables organize and compress data into standardized forms. They facilitate the
study and interpretation.

Most researchers use tables in their textual presentation of data. This is because
(1) researchers need to give little explanation only since data in tables are arranged
and grouped systematically; (2) readers can comprehend and interpret information
easily because they can see relationships of data at once, and (3) tables can present
ideas that are understood even without reading the textual presentation.

Constructing a Table

Tables include a title, a number, heading, a body and if necessary, notes.

Title

The title should identify the table briefly. It need not give background information or
describe the results. The modern way of writing titles omits the words Frequency and Percentage
Distribution of / Distribution of / According to.

Example:

Table 1

Effects of Mass Media

 Table title must be written two spaces below the table number. Table title, which is
normally written in inverted pyramid format, has content (principal) words in upper case initials
and non-content words (articles, coordinate conjunctions, prepositions and infinitive to) in lower
case letters except those with more than 5 letters. One should single-space captions with two or
more lines. Table titles should not be in question form. Aside from the inverted pyramid format,
table titles may also be written in paragraph form or block style. In the paragraph form, the first
word of the table title is indented five spaces and the succeeding lines are flushed with the left
margin, while in the block style, the title is flushed with the left margin of the table.
You should be consistent in your choice of table format throughout the paper.

Number

Each table in the research paper must be numbered using Arabic numerals. Tables must
be numbered and continuously through all the chapters. Tables in the appendix must be
numbered separately from the text. If the paper contains only one table, the number is
unnecessary. Only the initial letter of the word “Table” is capitalized.

Heading

Table heading is generally expressed in phrase or clause form. The heading contains the
stub and the box head. The stub contains the stub head and the row labels. The stub head tells
what the stub contains while the row labels describe the data written in that row. The box head
contains the master caption, column caption and column sub caption. Master caption describes
the column captions; column captions describe sub column captions. In the table on the next
page, Degrees is the stub head; AB, BSCE, BSE and MA are the row labels; Specializations
(Majors) is the master caption; English, History, Mathematics, Science and Totals are the
column captions; and F and % are the sub captions.

Table 1

Degrees and Specializations of the Teachers

Specializations (Majors)
Totals
Degrees Earned
English History Mathematics Science
F % F % F % F % F %

AB 1 1.69 2 3.39 6 10.17 12 20.34 21 35.59

BSCE 4 6.78 4 6.78
BSE 2 3.39 2 3.39 14 23.73 13 22.03 31 52.54
MA 1 1.69 2 3.39 3 5.08

Totals 3 5.08 4 6.78 25 42.37 27 45.76 59 99.99

(Calderon & Gonzales, 1993)

Table Data Spacing

The following are the guidelines in constructing tables for a research paper:

1. A double line written 2 spaces below the title separates the title from the table.
2. Horizontal lines separate the stub head and the column caption.
3. Lines do not separate rows and columns. Rows are double-spaced.
4. Side ends of tables are unruled.
5. A line from the last row of information separates bottom total.
6. Table is separated from the textual presentation by two spaces. If the table
succeeds the textual presentation, there should be 3 spaces in between the last line
of the text and the table number.
Tables
(If placed after text, observe 4 spaces from text to table number.)

Table 2 (Arabic number, numbered consecutively

throughout the paper)
(Double space)
Job Market Requirements for BS Industrial Education (Upper-lowercase) (Double space)

Competencies Mean Rank Verbal

(Capitalize only the first word of column headings unless proper (Leave a space before interpretation
noun/ adjective; observe parallelism in constructing the headings.) and after headings)
1. Positive attitude, perseverance, self-discipline 4.52 1 Very highly
and personal hygiene ( No period for words or phrases) important
2. Personal discipline skills 4.48 2.5 Highly
important
3. Ability to understand and convey visual 4.48 2.5 Highly
communication important
1. Ability to recognize, formulate and solve 4.36 4 Highly
problems important
2. Ability to engage in lifelong learning and 4.32 5 Highly
acceptance of the need to keep current of the important
development in the field of specialization
(Align all items listed in a table within and between entries.)
(Capitalize only the first word of items in rows if expressed in phrases or sentences; use upper-lowercase for proper nouns or adjectives.)

(If text follows table, observe 4 spaces before typing the first line of the text. Never break your tables; fit them in a page. You may adjust
the font size to fit in.)

B. Graphical Presentation of Data

A graph is a chart representing the quantitative variations of a variable itself or in comparison

with those of another variable. Graphing presents variations, changes and relationships of data in
a very attractive, appealing, effective and convincing way.

The common types of graphs used in research are bar graph, line graph, circle graph,
pictogram and map graph. You should only choose the graphs which represent best your data to
avoid redundancy.
Bar - vertical, horizontal, Multiple component

line graph

Circle – pie chart

Sales
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr

Pictogram – picture graph

Map graph or cartogram

C. Textual Presentation of Data

Presenting the data textually involves using statements with number to describe a
given data. It aims to highlight some important data and supplement the tabular or
graphical presentation.

Interpretation of Data

Interpretation or inference follows the textual presentation of each table in the

research. It must have at least three of the following elements presented by Calderon
and Gonzales (1993).
1. Condition. This refers to the findings discovered in the research.

2. Possible cause of the condition. This refers to the reason for the existence
of the condition discovered.

3. Possible effect of the condition. This refers to the result of the existence of
the condition discovered.

4. The measures to remedy the unsatisfactory condition or to strengthen the

favorable one. These are actions or suggestions to be undertaken in
response to the existing condition.

5. Comparison of findings with those of previous studies. This is the similar

finding confirming the result of previous researches, or theory of an expert
in the field.
Sample Chapter 4 (non-experimental)

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter includes the presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data that have

been gathered from the questionnaires distributed to the respondents. This chapter also

contains the presentation of data in tabular form along with their corresponding

interpretations.

1. Characteristics of the Respondents ( Align first sub-level headings with the left margin, upper-lowercase;
underline.)

1.1 Gender. Majority of the respondents were female with a frequency of 115 or

57.2 percent of the population while the male had a frequency of 86 or 42.8 percent.
(Second sub-level headings should be indented 5 spaces; should start a paragraph; capitalize only the first word; should be
followed by a period; underline)
(Align succeeding lines at the left margin)
1.2 Age. The age bracket of 18-27 garnered the highest percentage of 70 or 34.8

percent, followed by 17 and below age group with 33 or 16.4 percent.

2. Respondents’ Perceptions as Regards their Home

(When the sub-level heading is too long to put in one line, place continuation on the second line;
observe double space; use hanging indention; underline)
Environment by Gender

2.1 Female. __________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________.

2.2 Male. ____________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________.

Note: If possible, avoid third sub-level headings.

 Table 6

Reactions of the Children of Alcoholics

to Paternal Alcoholism

Reactions f % RESULTS
Anger 16 32
Avoidance 8 16
Silence 21 42
Nurture 5 10
Total 50 100

Out of the 50 children of alcoholics (COAs), 16 or 32 % would tend to react to

DISCUSSIO
paternal alcoholism with anger while eight (8) or 16% with avoidance. Twenty-one (21)

or 42% of the respondents, however, would react with silence and 5 or 10% with

nurture.

Majority of the children of alcoholics in the study had silence and anger as
cause
common reactions to paternal alcoholism. Many seemed to stay sober vis-à-vis the

drinking vice and behavior of their fathers. This sobriety appears to be a denial of the

unwanted domestic experience of having an alcoholic father.

Black (1992) believes that, in alcoholic families, substance abuse and fighting are

often denied and children are taught to follow three rules: “Don’t talk,” “ Don’t trust,”

and Don’t feel…” These rules essentially keep the COAs silent about, and worse, deny
 cause
alcoholism as a family problem.

On the other hand, anger seems to be a regretful reaction which is almost always
suggestio effe
n
true for many children with alcoholic parents. The emotion is essentially stirred by the

reality that having a family member addicted to alcohol is culturally shameful. Parental

alcoholism then breeds personal and social insecurity among the children.

However, as suggested by Brennan, familial or unfamilial relationship facilitates the

breaking of the rules of silence and anger among COAs, a condition that makes the

children better adjusted in any social situation.

Guidelines in Preparing Chapter IV

1. Leave 1 inch from the top.

2. Type CHAPTER 4 in upper case letters.

3. Leave 2 spaces up to the bottom of the page.

4. Type RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.

5. Indent 5 spaces. Write a paragraph describing the nature of the research.

6. Present the first table followed by its textual presentation and interpretation.

7. Do step number 6 until all tables are presented, analyzed and interpreted.
 Page number

Sample Chapter 4 experimental)

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter includes the presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data that have been

gathered from the experimentation. This chapter also contains the presentation of data in tabular

form along with their corresponding interpretations.

Table 1

The Mean and Standard Deviation of the Amount of Electricity Produced in Watts in the Four

Setups (Oryza sativa husk, Saccharum officinarum bagasse, Zea mays husk, and Cocos nucifera

husk)

Agricultural Biomass Waste Mean N Std. Deviation

Oryza sativa husk 19.6554 13 12.34787
Saccharum officinarum bagasse 18.1154 13 11.65927
Cocus nucifera husk 16.6746 13 10.42210
Zea mays husk 13.8862 13 8.22468

It has been recorded that the setup utilizing Oryza sativa husk garnered the highest mean

Wattage production (M=19.6554, SD = 12.34787), followed by the Saccharum officinarum

bagasse (M = 18.1154, SD = 11.65927), Cocus nucifera husk (M = 16.6746, SD = 10.4221),

while the Zea mays husk had the lowest mean Wattage production (M = 13.8862, SD = 8.22468).
 Page number

It was proven that the obtained heating values of Oryza sativa husk, Saccharum

officinarum bagasse, Cocus nucifera husk, and Zea mays husk could be used as a heat energy

source for the power generation of the Alab Device.

In the study of Radenahmad, et al. (2020) entitled “Thermochemical Characterization

of Rice Husk (Oryza sativa Linn) for Power Generation'', rice husk is found to be a potential

source of energy as it had a high heating value and good moisture content.

As stated in the study “Lignin as an alternative fuel: An estimate of the thermal energy

generation potential from Brazilian crops'' of Behainne, et al. (2016), sugarcane bagasse is one of

the lignocellulosic by–product that was found to have a high potential to provide thermal energy.

Figure 1

Electrical Power produced in Watts in the Four Setups (Oryza sativa husk, Saccharum officinarum

bagasse, Zea mays husk, and Cocos nucifera husk)

 Page number

The figure shows the electrical power produced in Watts according to the time stamp

using the following agricultural biomass wastes: (1) Oryza sativa husk (M=19.6554, SD =

12.34787), (2) Saccharum officinarum bagasse (M = 18.1154, SD = 11.65927), (3) Cocos

nucifera husk (M = 16.6746, SD = 10.4221), and (4) Zea mays husk (M = 13.8862, SD =

8.22468).

The results also coincide with the study of Luchaichana, et al. (2017), “In-depth Study of

Fuel Properties of Corn Residue (Cob, Stems/Leaves, and Husks) through the Torrefaction

Process”, where corn residue, specifically corn husks, obtained a high heating value for power

generation.

In the study of Amoako and Mensah-Amoah (2017), “Determination of Calorific Values of

Coconut Shells and Coconut Husks”, it was revealed that the calorific value of coconut husks has

been estimated to be approximately 10.01 MJ/kg. This high calorific value proves that the coconut

husk has the potential to be used as a heat energy source.