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Module C Notes-Compressed

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34 views15 pages

Module C Notes-Compressed

Uploaded by

Koichi K
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Lecture Link

I. Flight Mechanics Intro

Questions determining aircraft parameters:


- How far can we glide? (180km)
- How far can an aircraft fly with a given amount of fuel?
- How long can an aircraft fly?
- Maximum altitude
- How fast?
- How slow?

Aircraft Morphology: What shape is necessary for which performance?


Motion parameters:
- Aerodynamics
- Strictures (aircraft weight)
- Pilot (operation of aircraft)
- Propulsion system
- Atmosphere

II. Equations of Motion


➢ Objective: Using airpath-axis system to derive equations of motion

Newton's 1st law ONLY applies to a certain frame of reference

Earth-axis system: Earth’s frame of reference


Is the following an inertial frame of reference (aircraft to ground)?

→ technically, no (bc earth is round there is a centrifugal force)


Lecture Link

BUT, the outwards acceleration is so small, we can neglect it


→ Flat earth assumption

AND also the Earth is rotating


→ BUT it is still considered an inconsequential
amount unless you are going high speed/altitude

→ Based on the assumption that earth is flat and


not rotating, the plane/ground system becomes
an inertial frame of reference.

Reference Frames attached to the aircraft:


- Moving Earth-axis system (XE – ZE)
- Body-axis system (XB – ZB)
- Airspeed vector (v)
- Airpath-axis system (XA – ZA)
- α = Angle of attack

Force Vectors:
- L = Lift
- D = Drag
- W = Weight
- T = Thrust
- αT = Thrust angle of attack

Defining acceleration vectors:


→ Experience shows airpath-axis system is most convenient
Lecture Link

Horizontal acceleration: ax = dV/dt


Vertical (perpendicular to motion) Acceleration: az = V*d𝛾/dt (derivation shown above)

Equations of Motion:
(Derived below using Newton’s 2nd Law 𝚺F = ma → spend time understanding the blackboard)

III. Aerodynamics
➢ Objective: Expressing drag as a function of airspeed
Variables in the equations of motion
Lecture Link

Express aerodynamic force variables (T, L, W, D) as a function of state variables (v, 𝛾)


→ removing variables

CD0 = Not dependent on lift


C2L/𝜋A𝜙 = Drag from lift

3D finite wing → Tip vortices appear

Tip Vortices: Due to air pressure difference, circular motions of air appear on wingtips
→ Also the cause of aerodynamic drag (lift-induced)
Lecture Link

A → How slender the wing is (determined by b2/s → the larger, the more 2D it is)
𝜙 → Measure for lift distribution over the wing (ideal case = 1)

Parasite Drag - Drag generated from fuselage, antennae, vertical stabilizer

Approximating CD (including parasite, induced, and profile drag)


→ approximately a parabola (shown in figure below)
Lecture Link

Oswald Efficiency Factor (e)

e is used instead of 𝜙 (wing-efficiency factor) for a COMPLETE aircraft (not just wing)
(※ CD0 (zero lift drag) is also bigger for a full aircraft than a wing-only case)

→ Expressing aerodynamic force variables (T, L, W, D) as a function of state variables (v, 𝛾)

● Use lift equation = weight


→ CL = W/s*2/⍴*1/v2

● Parabolic lift-drag polar → convert from drag coefficient to drag force → substitute lift
coefficient with values
→ D = CD0*½*⍴*v2*s + k1w + k2*w2/s*2/⍴*1/v2 = f(v2) + f(1/v2)
- One part of aerodynamic drag increases with more
speed → CD0*½*⍴*v2*s
- One part of aerodynamic drag decreases with more
speed → k2*w2/s*2/⍴*1/v2
- Low speeds → drag mainly consists of induced drag
- High speeds → drag mainly consists of zero-lift drag
- Somewhere between, there is a point of min. drag
Lecture Link

- Fighter jets → high speeds → mainly deal with zero-lift drag → thin & small wing, low
aspect ratio
- Passenger jets, drones → lower speeds → mainly deal with lift-induced drag → larger
aspect ratio
Lecture Link

IV. Propulsion I

Last time, we expressed drag as a function of v under assumption that L = W


→ similarly, trying to express propulsive force (T) as a function of airspeed
➢ Objective: Introduce concepts of efficiency, leading up to thrust as a function of airspeed

v0 = inflow velocity of air = aircraft velocity


vj = jet velocity (velocity behind aircraft)
m-dot = mass flow of air
Mass flow coming out = m-dot + m-dotf

Based on conservation of momentum


→ Thrust = change in momentum rate
(only holds if the pressure at the exit of propulsion system = atmospheric pressure)
Lecture Link

IN REALITY:
- Pressure term is often much smaller than the momentum terms
- mfuel << mair → m-dotf can be assumed = 0
- So the thrust can simplify to (shown right):
→ T = m-dot * (vj - v0)

This presents 2 options:


- Can take small mass of air & accelerate to very
high speeds ex) jet engine
- Can take large mass of air & accelerate to small
speeds ex) propellers

Explanations of equations shown:


- Work equation: W = F*s = TΔx
- Power available: Pa = W/t = TΔx/Δt = T*v (arbitrary v: velocity)
- Thermal Power: Q = m-dotf * H (H: a constant chemical value showing amt. of energy
per unit fuel)
→ Total propulsion efficiency can be determined by ratio of thermal power to power
available i.e: ηt = Pa/Q

- Jet Power: Increase in Kinetic energy of the flow per second


= (Kinetic energy rate behind engine) - (kinetic energy rate in front of engine)
Lecture Link

● ηt = total efficiency
● ηth = thermal efficiency
● ηj = propulsive efficiency

- Propulsive efficiency can be expressed with aircraft velocity and jet velocity
Lecture Link

- ηj is always less than 100%


- Leaves behind kinetic energy in
atmosphere
- Also leaves heat
- Both dissipate

Example:

Conditions:
- Thrust = 1000N
- Mass flow = 10kg/s
→ T = m(vj - v) → vj - v = 100m/s

Case A:
- V = 100m/s → vj = 200m/s
- Using right formula, ηj = 66%

Case B:
- V = 200m/s → vj = 300m/s
- Using right formula, ηj = 80%

● Engines w high jet velocities → low efficiency at low speed, high efficiency at high speed

● Propellers → low speed applications


Lecture Link

V. Propulsion II
➢ Objective: Express thrust as a function of airspeed
○ For jet engines
○ For propellers

Case I. Jet Engine

Jet engine basics:


1. Air flows into the engine and is compressed
2. Fuel is injected
3. Combustion heats air up to a large temperature
4. Large temperature & pressure = wanting to expand
5. During expansion, it flows past turbine, driving the compressor
6. After turbine, it still has a lot of energy and expands through nozzle up till jet velocity

- Airspeed increase → Mass flow increase → Jet velocity stays constant = Velocity
difference decrease
- With mass flow increase and velocity difference decrease, there is more or less an
increase in thrust
- Graph shows 3 different throttle settings, can set any thrust level below maximum by
changing fuel flow
Lecture Link

→ Takeaway: Thrust can be assumed constant for a given flight altitude and throttle
setting

Power Available = T*v → becomes a linear function from the origin (since thrust = constant)

Case II. The Propeller

α = local angle of attack


φ = geometric angle of attack
β = angle of attack
- Increase in flight speed = Decrease in angle of attack → change of lift & drag
- Modern propellers - constant rotational speed + variable geometric pitch (shown below)
Lecture Link

- Varying pitch → angle of attack is controlled = thrust is controlled

- Shifting propeller pitch allows the optimum efficiency to be adjusted

- ηj (propellor efficiency) is defined by Pa (power available) / Pbr (shaft power)


- Power available is independent of flight speed for a given altitude & throttle setting
Lecture Link

- Thrust of propeller decreases with a 1/x (inverse proportional) shape w increasing speed

VI. Performance Diagram

- Force diagram is mainly used for jet engines


- Power diagram is mainly used for propellers
Graphs like the above are called performance diagram
- Using these function models and equations, thrust and forces can be calculated
analytically for aircraft
- Wtf is this shit i dont understand im gonna dieeeeee

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