Kinematics and
One-Dimensional Motion:
Non-Constant Acceleration
8.01
W01D3
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Average Velocity
The average velocity, v ave (t) , is the displacement Δr
divided by the time interval Δt
Δr Δx
v ave ≡ = î = vave,x (t) î
Δt Δt
The x-component of the average velocity is given
by
Δx
vave,x =
Δt
Instantaneous Velocity and
Differentiation
For each time interval Δt , calculate the x-component of
the average velocity
vave,x (t) = Δx / Δt
Take limit as Δt → 0 sequence of the x-component
average velocities
Δx x(t + Δt) − x(t) dx
lim = lim ≡
Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt dt
The limiting value of this sequence is x-component of
the instantaneous velocity at the time t.
vx (t) = dx / dt
Instantaneous Velocity
x-component of the velocity is equal to the slope of the
tangent line of the graph of x-component of position vs.
time at time t
dx
vx (t) =
dt
Worked Example: Differentiation
x(t) = At 2
x(t + Δt) = A(t + Δt)2 = At 2 + 2AtΔt + AΔt 2
x(t + Δt) − x(t)
= 2At + AΔt
Δt
dx x(t + Δt) − x(t)
= lim = lim (2At + AΔt) = 2At
dt Δt→0 Δt Δt→0
Generalization for Polynomials:
x(t) = At n
dx
= nAt n−1
dt
Concept Question: Instantaneous
Velocity
The graph shows the position as a
function of time for two trains
running on parallel tracks. For
times greater than t = 0, which of
the following is true:
1. At time tB, both trains have the
same velocity.
2. Both trains speed up all the time.
3. Both trains have the same velocity
at some time before tB, .
4. Somewhere on the graph, both
trains have the same acceleration.
Average Acceleration
Change in instantaneous velocity divided by
the time interval Δt = t2 − t1
(vx,2 − vx,1 )
Δv Δvx Δvx
a ave ≡ = î = î = î = aave,x î
Δt Δt Δt Δt
The x-component of the average acceleration
Δvx
aave,x =
Δt
Instantaneous Acceleration
and Differentiation
For each time interval Δt , calculate the x-component of
the average acceleration
aave,x (t) = Δvx / Δt
Take limit as Δt → 0 sequence of the x-component
average accelerations
Δvx vx (t + Δt) − vx (t) dvx
lim = lim ≡
Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt dt
The limiting value of this sequence is x-component of
the instantaneous acceleration at the time t.
ax (t) = dvx / dt
Instantaneous Acceleration
The x-component of acceleration is equal to the slope of the
tangent line of the graph of the x-component of the velocity
vs. time at time t
dvx
ax (t) =
dt
Group Problem: Model Rocket
A person launches a home-built model rocket straight up
into the air at y = 0 from rest at time t = 0 . (The positive y-
direction is upwards). The fuel burns out at t = t0. The
position of the rocket is given by
⎧1 a0 6 4
y = ⎨ (a0 − g)t − t / t0 ;
2
0 < t < t0
⎩2 30
with a0 and g are positive. Find the y-components of the
velocity and acceleration of the rocket as a function of
time. Graph ay vs t for 0 < t < t0.
Non-Constant Acceleration
and Integration
Change in Velocity: Integral of
Acceleration
Consider some time t such that
t0 < t < t f
Then the change in the x-component
of the velocity is the integral of the x-
component acceleration
(denote vx,0 ≡ vx (t0 ) ).
t ′ =t
vx (t) − vx,0 = ∫
t ′ =t0
ax (t ′ ) dt ′
“Integration is the inverse operation of differentiation”
Change in Position: Integral of
Velocity
Area under the graph of x-component of the velocity vs. time is
the displacement (denote x0 ≡ x(t0 )).
t ′ =t
x(t) − x0 = ∫
t ′ =t0
vx (t ′ ) dt ′
Worked Example: Time-Dependent
Acceleration
a
Acceleration is a non-constant function of time x (t) = At 2
with t0 = 0 , vx,0 = 0 , and x0 = 0 .
Change in velocity:
t ′ =t t ′ =t
t ′ 3
At 3
vx (t) − 0 = ∫ At ′ 2 dt ′ = A ⇒ vx (t) =
t ′ =0
3 t′=0 3
Change in position:
t ′ =t
t ′ =t
⎛ t′ ⎞
3 ⎛ ⎛ t′ ⎞ ⎞
4
At 4
x(t) − 0 = ∫ A ⎜ ⎟ dt ′ ⇒ x(t) = ⎜ A ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ =
t ′ =0 ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎠ 12
0
Generalization for Polynomials:
t ′ =t n+1 t ′ =t
t ′ t n+1
t n+1
∫ ′ ′ = = −
n 0
t d t
t ′ =t 0
n + 1 t ′=t n + 1 n + 1
0
Special Case:
Constant Acceleration
Acceleration: ax = constant
t ′ =t
Velocity: vx (t) − vx,0 = ∫a x
dt ′ = a x t ⇒
t ′ =0
vx (t) = vx,0 + ax t
Position:
t ′ =t
x(t) − x0 = ∫ (v
t ′ =t0
x,0
+ ax t ′ ) dt ′ ⇒
1
x(t) = x0 + vx,0t + ax t 2
2
Concept Question: Integration
A particle, starting at rest at t = 0, experiences a non-
constant acceleration ax(t) . It’s change of position can be
found by
1. Differentiating ax(t) twice.
2. Integrating ax(t) twice.
3. (1/2) ax(t) times t2.
4. None of the above.
5. Two of the above.
Group Problem: Sports Car
At t = 0 , a sports car starting at rest at x = 0 accelerates
with an x-component of acceleration given by
ax (t) = At − Bt , for 0 < t < (A / B)
3 1/2
and zero afterwards with A, B > 0
(1) Find expressions for the velocity and position vectors of
the sports car as functions of time for t >0.
(2) Sketch graphs of the x-component of the position, velocity
and acceleration of the sports car as a function of time for
t >0
Appendix:
Integration and the Riemann
Sum
Change in Velocity: Area Under
Curve of Acceleration vs. time
Mean Value Theorem: For
each rectangle there exists a
time
ti < t = ci < ti+1
such that
dvx
vx (ti+1 ) − vx (ti ) = (ci )Δt = ax (ci )Δt
dt
Apply Mean Value Theorem
vx (t1 ) − vx (t0 ) = ax (c0 )Δt
(vx (t2 ) − vx (t1 )) = ax (c1 )Δt
⋅⋅⋅ = ⋅⋅⋅
vx (ti+1 ) − vx (ti ) = ax (ci )Δt
⋅⋅⋅ = ⋅⋅⋅
vx (tn ) − vx (tn−1 ) = ax (cn−1 )Δt
We can add up the area of the rectangles and find
i=n−1
vx (tn ) − vx (t0 ) = ∑ ((a (c )Δt)
x i
i=0
Change in Velocity: Integral of
Acceleration
The area under the graph of
the x-component of the
acceleration vs. time is the
change in velocity
i= N
vx (t f ) − vx (t0 ) = lim ∑ ax (ti )Δti
Δti →0
i=1
t=t f
vx (t f ) − vx (t0 ) ≡ ∫
t=t0
ax (t) dt
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