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ISSN: 2075-0943
Published by OCM-UMT
University of Management and Technology
C-II, Johar Town, Lahore-54770, Pakistan
Disclaimer
UMT does not accept any responsibility or liability for the statements,
contents, opinions expressed or conclusions drawn by the contributors of
the Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Volume 3, Issue 2 Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization Fall 2013
JOURNAL OF ISLAMIC THOUGHT

AND CIVILIZATION
(ISSN 2075-0943)
Fall 2013
VOLUME 3, ISSUE 2
PATRON IN-CHIEF
Dr. Hasan Sohaib Murad
Rector
PATRON
Dr Mumtaz Ahmad Salik
Head, Department of Islamic Thought and Civilization
EDITORS
Dr. Amjad Waheed
Assistant Professor
Department of Islamic Thought and Civilization
University of Management and Technology, Lahore
Dr. Humaira Ahmad

Assistant Professor
i
BOARD OF ADVISORS
Prof. Dr. John L. Esposito

Georgetown University
Washington, DC. USA
Dr. S. M. Ghazanfar
Professor Emeritus/ Economics
Director, International Studies Program
University of Idaho, USA
Prof. Dr. Francis Robinson

Royal Holloway
University of London, UK
Prof. Dr. Atta Ullah Siddiqui

Markfield Institute of Higher Education, UK
Prof. Dr. Sulayman Nyang

African Study Department
Howard University
Washington, DC, USA
Prof. Dr. Zahid Bukhari

Director, American Muslim Studies Program (AMSP)
Prince Alwaleed Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding
Georgetown University
Washington, DC, USA
Prof. Dr. Mustafa Ali

Director and Secretary General
African Council of Religious Leaders
Kenya
Prof. Dr. Mustanser Mir

Youngstown State University
USA
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim M. Zein

Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Malaysia
Dr. Muzaffar Iqbal

Center of Islam and Science
Canada
Prof. Ziauddin Sardar

Dircetor, Centre for Postnormal Policy and Future Studies
East West Chicago
Dr. Salih Yucel

Senior Lecturer, Islamic Studies
Centre for Studies in Religion and Theology
Faculty of Arts, Monash University
Australia
Dr. Salman Sayyid

University of Leeds
UK
Dr. Anis Ahmad

Rector, Riphah University
Islamabad
Mr. Suheyl Umar

Director, Iqbal Academy
Lahore
Prof. Dr. Syed Nomanul Haq

Department of Social Sciences and Liberal Arts
Institute of Business Administration (IBA)
Karachi
ii
Editor’s Note
The diverse range of articles that comprise this issue of the Journal touch upon
issues that affect the Muslim communities in this life as in the hereafter. Drawing
upon knowledge gleaned from scholars across the world and in Pakistan, the edi-
tors have made an attempt to bring to the limelight pressing issues - such as Is-
lamic economics and distribution of estates in Nigeria to religious dialogue, the
concept of evil, and bridging the gap between religion and the modern sciences -
to name a few. It is sincerely hoped that the readers would benefit from the
scholarly endeavors and painstaking research conducted by the contributors.
iii
Contributors
Ismael Saka Ismael
Senior Lecturer,
Department of Islamic Law, Faculty of Law
University of Ilorin
Ilorin, Nigeria
Mohammad Dawood Sofi

Doctoral Candidate, Department of Islamic Studies
Aligarh Muslim University (AMU)
Aligarh, India
Nasir Nabi
Doctoral Research Fellow, Department of Islamic Studies,
University of Kashmir, Srinagar
Jammun and Kashmir, India
Muhammad Shahid Habib

Department of Comparative Religion
Faculty of Islamic Studies (Usuluddin)
Islamabad, Pakistan
Dr Ahmad Siddiqui
Associate Dean, School of Business and Economics
Lahore
Azher Hameed Qamar

Lecturer
Department of Psychology
Lahore
Gull-i-Hina
Assistant Professor
Lahore
Gull-i-Saba
Assistant professor
Jinnah Degree College, Lahore
iv
Table of Contents
Sr. PAGE
No. CONTENTS No.
Ismael Saka Ismael
1. An Examination of Causes of Delay in the Distribution of Estates 1
in Ilorin and Its Environs
2. Knowledge―Toward Bridging Religious and Modern Sciences: 13
Bediuzzaman Said Nursi’s Approach
Nasir Nabi
3. Islamic Economic Thought in the Medieval Times: Some Reflec- 21
tions
4. The meaning of Religious Dialogue: According to Christian- 33
Muslim Theologians in Pakistan
Dr Ahmad F. Siddiqui
5. A Statistical Analysis for Increasing Reward with Increasing 39
Size of Jam’at
Azher Hameed Qamar
6. The Concept of the ‘Evil’ and the ‘Evil Eye’ in Islam And Islamic 44
Faith-Healing Traditions
Ms. Gull-i-Hina, Ms. Gull-i-Saba
7. Taubat-un-Nasooh:Religious Implications among Families of 54
19th century Ashrafia of Colonial India
v
vi
An Examination of Causes of Delay in the Distribution

of Estates in Ilorin and its Environs
Ismael Saka Ismael
Abstract
In the last two decades or thereabout, Area Courts and indeed other courts with jurisdiction to hear and
determine Muslim matters in Ilorin have been inundated with cases involving distribution of estate of de-
ceased Muslims who have died long time without having such estates distributed on time. Some of these
cases dragged for a long time resulting into protracted litigation. The curiosity of the author to find out the
cause(s) of these delays is the driving force for embarking on this research work. This paper is therefore,
an indepth examination of the causes of delay in the distribution of estates of deceased Muslims of Ilorin
specifically and the Muslims of Kwara State in general. Delay breeds litigation which most often becomes
protracted. This paper is meant to serve as a clarion call to revert to application of pristine Islamic Law of
Inheritance after identifying delay as a serious problem in the sphere of application of Islamic Law of In-
heritance in the area under reference.
Keywords: Ilorin, Islamic Law, Estate Distribution, Inheritance
Introduction and absolute control of disposal of his wealth or estate

because he cannot decide who takes what and cannot
Ilorin is both de facto and de jure a town inhabited by
equally decide how it is to be disposed except what is
Muslims.1 The inhabitants of the town consist of the
permitted.13 It has to be distributed in accordance with
Yoruba,2 Hausa, Nupe, Baruba and Fulfulde speaking
the directive 14 of the Real Absolute Owner-Allah
communities who form the major ethnic groups of
(SAW). So like any other place, in Ilorin, not until the
Kwara State. Apart from these communities, there are
inheritance is opened and the estate distributed, the
other Yoruba and non-Yoruba speaking Muslims from
heirs have no right whatever to the estate of their pre-
the neighbouring Yoruba and non-Yoruba speaking
decessor.
States. The Muslim inhabitants of the town conduct
their everyday life activities 3 in accordance with the It is a general principle and practice of Islamic Law of
dictates, principles and doctrines of Islamic Law.4 Of Inheritance that a man is ceased of control over his as-
all the activities of the Muslims of Ilorin, wedding, sets as a result of death and as soon as the eight-day
naming ceremonies and funeral rites receive a lot of fidau prayer of a deceased Muslim is observed, his es-
prominence. The former two attract a lot of pomp and tate becomes due for distribution amongst his legiti-
pageantry while the latter is observed with solemn so- mate and legal heirs.15 This ought to be the practice
berness because it brings to an end the sojourn of man and it is expected that any moment from this particular
on this earth and marks the beginning of another chain time, the estate of a deceased Muslim of Ilorin be-
of activities.5 comes due for distribution amongst his heirs in accord-
ance with the Law of Intestate Succession in Islamic
The Muslims of Ilorin, while living, other Muslims Law. However, in the last two decades or there about,
elsewhere are naturally endowed with abundant insa- it is observed that delaying distribution of estates has
tiable instinct 6 of acquisition of wealth 7 which they impacted and inhibited application of pristine Islamic
exert some degree of absolute control8 over while they Law in the area of estate distribution in accordance
are alive. The Ilorin Muslim is a trustee9 of the wealth with Islamic Law (in Ilorin specifically and amongst
that he owns for the duration of his life. 10 When his the Muslims of Kwara State in general). This has
term of life expires, his trusteeship over his wealth and brought about serious problem of inordinate delay and
property expires too. No matter how much time the in some cases outright refusal to distribute estate
Muslim of Ilorin spend on this earth, one day, the end amongst others with grave consequences. The socio-
shall come by way of death.11 Since death is the ulti- economic and religio-legal consequences of delaying
mate end of man in his sojourn on this earth, it can be distribution of estate of a Muslim provides the enabling
said to be a global phenomenon which no one prays environment warranting undertaking a research into the
for, yet a reality to all human beings because every causes of delay in the distribution of estates in Ilorin in
human being shall have a taste of it.12 Upon the demise particular and Kwara State in general. This research is
of a Muslim of Ilorin, he loses his right of ownership therefore based on field work conducted in the Ilorin
Emirate between 2000 and 2011.
1
Causes of Delay in Ilorin and its Environs estates in form of either seeking for adjournments on
one reason or the other or in filing all sorts of motions
A close study of some cases shows that variety of
(both ex-parte and on notice) or foot- dragging in cases
causes account for either ordinary 16 or inordinate 17
that require obtaining letters of administration before
delay in the distribution of estate in Ilorin in particular effecting distribution. Letters of administration take
and amongst the Muslims of Kwara State in general. months, in some extreme cases, years to obtain.
These causes are:
Apart from this, delayed distribution of estate in Ilorin
1. Fear of the Use of Supernatural Powers in particular and amongst the Muslims of Kwara State
Delay in the distribution of estate of a deceased Mus- in general, is also attributable to “unnecessary” ap-
lim of Ilorin and among the Muslims of Kwara State is peals 22 against decisions of trial courts arising from
often caused by the customary belief, efficacy and gen- either the lawyer’s failure or inability to properly ana-
eral fear of the use of spiritual and supernatural power lyze the issues and or law involved in the cases or for
by the person in possession of the estate against the mere “development” of the law. The case of Madam
heirs in situations where the heirs are weak and of ten- Iyabo Imam v. Akanni Akibu & 5 Ors,23 amongst others
der age.18 The fear of use of spiritual and supernatural illustrates the point. In this case, the Plaintiff is con-
power against them usually instills palpable fear in the sanguine sister of the first Defendant while 2nd to 6th
minds of the heirs, thereby perpetually keeping them Defendants are children of late germane brother (Alhaji
silent over the issue of distribution of estate. It will be Garuba Kaduna who predeceased his father) of the
recalled that many African Muslim Communities (Ilor- Plaintiff. The father of the Plaintiff, first Defendant and
in and indeed Kwara State inclusive) adopted Islam Plaintiff’s late germane brother is late Shaba Moham-
and Islamic ways of life and mixed it with traditional med Umaru who died on 21st January, 1981 while 2nd
customs and practices especially in the preparation of to 6th Defendants are grand children of late Shaba Mo-
charms and amulets19 which the people wear to protect hammed Umaru from Garuba Kaduna.
themselves from evil misfortune, to bring prosperity The case arose as a result of agitation from 2nd to 6th
and success against enemies and evil forces. This belief Defendants for distribution of estate of late Garuba
and practice is partly a result of the environment under
Kaduna, the germane brother of the Plaintiff. Upon full
which people live, where many things appear magical
trial to determine ownership of the properties sought to
rather than logical because science has not affected the constitute the estate to be distributed, the Upper Area
majority of the people’s lives in any fundamental
Court 1, Ilorin in the last paragraph of its judgment in
way.20 the case under consideration provides:
2. Lawyers’ Attitude The summary of the judgment therefore is that the
In Ilorin and among the Muslims of Kwara State, law- Plaintiff is declared the owner of the property at
yers’ attitude does not really constitute a major cause Magajin Agbo Compound, Agaka, Ilorin and the
two rooms at Opo-Malu. The properties at Magajin
of delay in the distribution of estate because about Gari, Idi-Ose, is to be shared according to Islamic
ninety percent of estate distribution is done by the local Law of inheritance between the plaintiff and sec-
Mallams, the Alfas i. e. Ulamas. Lawyers do not really ond to sixth (2nd - 6th) defendants while that at
get involved here. This is because generally, the Ilorin Magajin Gari, Surulere is to be administered in
Muslim abhors court litigation and detests resorting to conformity with Sharia (Law of Succession) be-
the courts by way of litigation to have estate distributed tween the Plaintiff. Any dissatisfied party has a
in deference to tradition. This is why it is a common right of appeal to the High Court within 30 days
adage amongst the people that “Aa kii ti kotu bo so re” (Emphasis mine).
meaning litigation breeds enmity rather than friend- In spite of the trial court stating in its judgment where
ship. The Ilorin Muslim would rather prefer to suffer in appeal should go to, the defendants’ counsel instead of
silence by having the estate remain undistributed than appealing to the appropriate court, 24 filed on appeal
resort to court litigation to effect distribution. 21 This before Kwara State Shari’a Court of Appeal, Ilorin 25
situation is slowly changing as a number of estate dis- which was struck out26 on 30/3/06 on preliminary ob-
tributions are conducted through litigation, though the jection raised by Plaintiff/Respondent’s Counsel on the
number is negligible.
ground that the Shari’a Court of Appeal lacks jurisdic-
However, in a few cases where estates distributed tion to entertain the suit. The suit was subsequently
through court litigation, i.e., about ten per cent, law- transferred 27from Shari’a Court of Appeal to the State
yers’ attitude comes to play in delaying distribution of High Court in its appellate jurisdiction.28 On the hear-
2
ing date, 23/01/2007, the Appellants, realizing the fu- yers’ attitude constitutes a cause of delay in distribu-
tility of the appeal, withdrew 29 it. The withdrawal of tion of estate as the court held inter alia that:
the appeal and its striking out by the State High Court …In fact there is no clear evidence that this court’s
(in its appellate session) provided the enabling envi- Order of 13th January, 2004 was in any way flout-
ronment for the Plaintiff/Respondent to have part of ed by the Respondents. Both counsel are to be
the property adjudged subject to inheritance in accord- blamed for unnecessary delaying the hearing of
ance with Shari’a be distributed in Madam Iyabo Imam this matter to its logical conclusion. It is clearly
v. Mrs Tinuke Akibu.30 The Defendant in this case is from the record that the land in dispute, which is
the eldest child of Akanni Akibu, the 1st Defendant in the subject matter of inheritance, was in fact, un-
the withdrawn case. She was sued because by the time scathed and untouched…33 (Emphasis mine).
the case was eventually withdrawn from the High After failure of all these unnecessary judicial voyage of
Court, Akanni Akibu had already died. The share discoveries, the Appellants’ counsel by a motion (at the
meant for Akanni Akibu was distributed amongst his Supreme Court of Nigeria) dated 27th March 2008
heirs because Garba Kaduna predeceased Shaba Mo- heard and granted on 10th December 2008, decided to
hammed Umaru, grandfather of 2nd to 6th Defendants. pursue the substantive suit.34 From the above analysis,
A close study of the cases here will reveal that the atti- it is vividly clear that attitude of counsel has caused a
tude of lawyer(s) has contributed greatly to delaying delay of about seven years (from 11th July 2002 to 5th
the distribution of the estate which would have been January 2009) in the course of having the case being
carried out in 2005 instead of 2007, a delay of about decided finally.
two years or thereabout due to problem(s) associated 3. Judges’ Attitude
with lawyers (earlier highlighted above) in the few
cases that are resolved through litigation. Judges of Courts35 constitute one of the three36 classes
of distributors of estates of deceased Muslims in Ilorin
The Appellants’ counsel’s attitude in Alhaji Saka in particular and Kwara State in general. The attitude
Opobiyi v. Layiwola Muniru 31 also buttresses the as- of some of these judges contributes to the delay associ-
sertion that the attitude of lawyers constitutes one of ated with cases of inheritance that are determined
the major causes of delay in the distribution of estates through court litigations. It should be borne in mind
in the very few cases of inheritance that are determined that cases of estate distribution in accordance with Is-
by means of court litigation in Ilorin and Kwara State lamic Law decided through litigation are very few in
in general. In this case, the Court of Appeal, Ilorin Di- Ilorin due to reasons advanced earlier in this paper.
vision, on 11th July 2002 delivered its judgment which
was not palatable to the Appellants. The Appellants’ For the purpose of discussing this class of distributors,
counsel appealed to the Supreme Court of Nigeria in i.e., the judges of courts, emphasis would be placed on
Abuja vide Notice and Grounds of Appeal dated and the Area Courts because they are the courts of first in-
filed on 31st July 2002. Rather than pursue the appeal stance while the others 37 perform supervisory 38 and
in Abuja to a logical conclusion, he decided to indulge appellate 39 functions as the case may be. In reality,
in judicial window shopping by dissipating his energy within this class of estate distributors, the Area Courts,
on proceedings for stay of execution of judgment of being courts of first instance, are the ones involved in
11th July, 2002 and interlocutory injunction which was actual and physical distribution of estates of deceased
filed on 31st July 2002 and concluded on 13th January Ilorin Muslims whose relations have to resort to them
2004.32 The Court of Appeal, Ilorin Division, however for resolution where distribution by either of the other
refused to grant stay of execution of judgment but re- two classes of distributors would not achieve the result
strained and ordered both parties to maintain status due to one problem or the other. For the purpose of
quo. illustrating this assertion is the case of Madam Iyabo
Imam v. Mrs. Tinuke Akibu40 which is a case involving
In spite of the restraining order of the Court of Appeal, distribution of estate of late Shaba Mohammed Umoru
instead of pursuing the substantive suit, the Appellants’ which arose from the determination of property owned
counsel initiated contempt proceedings against the Re- by the deceased (late Shaba Mohammed Umoru) and
spondent, Layiwola Muniru, on 4th October 2004. This late Garuba Kaduna being subject to inheritance in ac-
proceeding was dismissed for lack of merit on 6th Feb- cordance with Islamic Law in Madam Iyabo Imam v.
ruary 2006. In its ruling of dismissal, the Court of Ap-
Mr. Akanni Akibu & 5 Ors.41
peal, Ilorin Division, alluded to the assertion that law-
3
The Area Courts used to be known and called Provin- motion KWS/SCA/CV/M/IL/ 14/2003 decided on
cial Courts (Native Courts) during the colonial era. 9th June, 2004 before us…52 (Emphasis mine)
They were established then by Warrant under the hand Based on the researcher’s experience in legal practice
of a Provincial Commissioner within his province as he in these courts, corruption, a cancer worm not peculiar
shall think fit,42 subject to confirmation by the Minis- to the judicial arm of the government is the most prob-
ter. Today, in Kwara State, these courts are no longer able cause of the judge’s attitude and behaviour in this
called Native Courts but Area Courts and they are es- case. Public institutions in Nigeria today have lost their
tablished by Warrants under the hand of the Chief values due to corruption. The judiciary as a whole is no
Judge who may establish them as he shall think fit.43 exception as it is replete with corruption. Many judges
The Courts, during colonial era, had “alkali”, a person have conspired through their attitude and corrupt
learned in Moslem Law as the alkali 44 and they hear tendencies to bring the profession into disrepute. They
and determine civil matters amongst others which in- have eroded the last hope of the common man. 53 Of
volve questions of Moslem personal Law.45 The alkali recent, the Chief Justice of Nigeria was accused by the
of that time, though they were not trained in the mod- President of Court of Appeal of trying to interfere in a
ern conventional legal education,46were however, very diabolic manner with the outcome of the Sokoto State
versed and experienced in Islamic Law and procedure. Gubernatorial election tribunal decision. 54 As if that
They attended the traditional Makarantar Allo, was not bad enough, it has also been reported that there
Makarantar ilimi and the Kano Law School. Today, in has been a scam involving six billion Naira in the Na-
Kwara State, about ninety percent of judges in the var- tional Judicial Institute of which the Chief Justice of
ious Area Courts (Upper Area Courts inclusive) pos- Nigeria is the Chairman.55 Also, some years ago, the
sess a degree in either Islamic Law or combined degree Administrator of the Institute, Justice Oyeyipo, a re-
of Common and Islamic Laws 47 while majority of tired Chief Judge of Kwara State, was relieved of that
them, in addition to possessing a degree in Islamic Law position for financial impropriety. The incumbent Ad-
or Common and Islamic Laws, are also qualified legal ministrator of the Institute, Justice Umaru Eri, a retired
practitioners 48 by the definition of Legal Practitioners Chief Judge of Kogi State who took over from Justice
Act.49 Oyeyipo is said to be at the centre of the alleged
scam. 56 If these high ranking judicial personalities
At this juncture, it is pertinent to state that notwith-
could stoop so low as to get themselves enmeshed in
standing the volume of cases before the trial courts, the
these unethical behaviours, what else do we expect
attitude of the judges, especially those of the Area
from an Area Court judge?. Nemesis would certainly
Courts, including Upper Area Courts, and some other
catch up with them one day as it did with judge Abdul-
factors50 contribute immensely to congestion of cases
lahi who was charged for corruption in C. O. P. v.
in these courts which account for the snail like pace of
Alhaji Ibrahim Abdullahi57 before an Ilorin Chief Mag-
administration of justice in Ilorin in particular and
istrate Court in Kwara State.
Kwara State in general. The result of this is delay in
concluding most of these cases which include the ones By the First Information Report (F.I.R.) in the case
on estate distribution. The point the researcher is mak- under reference, the accused was the presiding judge of
ing here is most likely to be appreciated by using the Upper Area Court, Ganmo. He was standing trial for
case of Abdullahi Ibrahim v. Baba Tapa & Ibrahim the offence of “public service in judicial proceeding
Koto 51 as illustration. In this case, the Grand Kadi of acting contrary to law and public servant taking grati-
Kwara State Shari’a Court of Appeal, Ilorin, in a ruling fication in respect of Judicial Act contrary to Sections
written and delivered by his Lordship stated that: 125 and 115(2) of Penal Code”. It was alleged against
the accused that:
…we want to take judicial notice of the fact that
we had cause in 2004 to listen to the same com- On 10th March, 2011, at about 1300hrs, on the
plaint from the same party on the same matter and strength of a letter of complaint with Ref. No.
in the same manner. We must confess that we are C.42B/Vol. IV/711 dated 3rd March, 2011 re-
worried, sad and concerned that this suit, on the ceived from the Judiciary, Chief Registrar’s
succession of two rooms, filed since 16th March, Chamber, Ilorin signed by S. T. Abdulkadir (Mrs)
2001 remains unresolved till today. It is unfortu- addressed to the Commissioner of Police and en-
nate to say the least. In the Upper Area Court 1, it dorsed to this department for discreet investigation
suffered seven adjournments before it was trans- wherein it was reported that on 27th January, 2011
ferred to Upper Area Court II, Ilorin in December, four suspects namely (1) Yusuf Abayomi (2)
2003. Due to similar neglect the applicant filed a Busari Shehu (3) Usman Salami and (4) Olabode
4
Olabisi all of various addresses in Ilorin township gorically state that Ilorin58 is a place of men of learning
were arraigned in Court on First Information Re- and knowledge in Islam and Islamic Education even
port before Upper Area Court Ganmo being pre-
before59 and after60 the coming of Sheikh Alimi61 and
sided over by you Hon. Alhaji Ibrahim Abdullahi
and Hon. Ganiyu Mustapha for various Traffic Of- his Jama’a and subsequent settlement in Ilorin. From
fences by the Nigerian Police, ‘A’ Division Ilorin. time immemorial to date, Ilorin has been blessed with
It was further reported that contrary to the regular men of great learning in a number of branches of Islam
judicial process, you Hon. Ibrahim Abdullahi, a and Islamic Education. Majority of these erudite and
Public Servant in judicial proceeding, acted contra- distinguished scholars of repute in Islam and Islamic
ry to the laid down rules, tried the suspects sum- Education are of blessed memory62 while some others
marily convicted them without following the due are still alive.63
judicial process, after which you allowed the con-
victs to go home to source for the fines imposed on These erudite Muslim scholars of Ilorin (past and pre-
them till on the 28th January, 2011 when they sent) have the basic general knowledge of almost all
came back to the court to pay the fines. It is further the spheres of Islam and Islamic Education (including
alleged that contrary to the laid down laws, you law) to qualify to be called and referred to as “Alfas” or
personally collected the said fine and issued re- “Afas” and to hold position of office of an “Imam” in
ceipts to the convicts which did not reflect the ac-
some cases and in other cases, qualified to be even
tual amount of fines imposed on them by your
court. Discreet Police Investigation revealed that judges of an Islamic Court. In addition to having the
you a Public Servant in judicial proceeding acted basic knowledge of the various fields of Islam and Is-
contrary to law and equally took gratification in re- lamic Education, each and every one of them has his
spect of your judicial Act. area of specialization such as:
It is sad to state that this case got terminated through Tafsirul Qur’an, knowledge of the interpretation
filing of a Nolle and the Area Court Judge was re- and application of the text of Qur’an, its literature
moved as one and made head of Court Interpreters. It is such as its diction, phraseology, Science of Hadith,
‘Ilmul Fara’id, Succession law, Tarikh, History of
however not all the judges that are bad but the very few
Islam and Muslim personalities, Sufism; Theory
bad eggs amongst them are dragging the name of the and Practice of mysticism, Mantiq logic in Islamic
judiciary to the mud. As observed earlier, the issue of Studies, Da’wah, Science of propagation of the
corruption is not limited or peculiar to the judiciary; it Faith, Tawhid, Science of the concept of the unity
is a cancerous worm afflicting all public institutions in of Allah and many other branches of Islamic Stud-
Nigeria. ies known as Funun.64
4. Ulamas’ Role in Society Each of these erudite and prominent Islamic scholars
In Ilorin and Kwara State in general, the Ulama are of Ilorin (past and present) are reputedly known and
commonly known, referred to and called Alfas or Afas. associated with possessing in depth knowledge and
From religious perspective, their role in the society is skills in one or more areas of the aforementioned areas
very vital and multi-dimensional to the extent that this of specialization. There is however, none of these
cannot be over-emphasized. A few of their roles and scholars (past or present) prominently and reputedly
responsibilities are leading prayers (Imam), public acclaimed to have specialized in the knowledge and
preaching on Islam, Islamic rites and Islamic religious skill of distribution of estate or associated with the
way of life, conducting Islamic naming ceremonies, field and skill of ‘Ilmul-Fara’id. Even if there is, such
conducting Islamic Nikkah, conducting Janaza prayer scholar(s) has/have not been widely acclaimed in Ilorin
and distribution of estates of deceased Muslims in ac- in particular and Kwara State in general as it is with
cordance with Islamic Law amongst others. They are respect to other fields of specialization such as Su-
people well versed in Arabic, Islamic Studies, Islamic fism, 65 Da’wah, general Arabic and Islamic scholar-
Law and a host of other fields of Islamic knowledge. ship66 to mention but a few areas.
The Alfas/Afas constitute the major class of estate dis- From the above analysis, it is presumed and it ought to
tributors in Ilorin and Kwara State as a whole because be that when it comes to the areas of specialization, it
majority of estate distribution is done through this is the expert in the relevant field that takes the stage to
means than through the courts as pointed out earlier. handle the issue(s) at stake as the case may be. This is
Before delving into the role of Alfas/Afas, i. e., Ulamas because each area of specialization has developed its
(Local Mallams) with regard to estate distribution in jurisprudential science to solve any given knot, even
Ilorin and Kwara State, the researcher wishes to cate-
5
though they all have common primary sources,67 i.e., ‘ilm ul-Fara’id is acclaimed to be one of the fields of
the Glorious Qur’an and Hadith/Sunnah. knowledge that will fade away towards the end of the
world,75 contribute probably to the dearth of scholars
These days it is not uncommon in Ilorin and amongst
versed in the knowledge, skill and art of distribution of
the Muslims of Kwara State, to find Alfas who are not
estate in accordance with Islamic Law. There is no
versed in the knowledge, skill and art of estate distribu-
doubt that the field of Islamic Law of Inheritance is
tion indulging in estate distribution when called upon
very technical and can only be handled by experts 76
to do so by heirs.68 The researcher, in the course of this
only but regrettably today many self proclaimed Al-
research and as an active participant in the distribution
fas/Afas in Ilorin and indeed Kwara State dabble into
of estate of XYZ in Share,69 a suburb of Ilorin, a resi-
it.77
dent Alfa who was an observer in the distribution of the
estate in question, informed me after the distribution Discussion on the role of Alfas / Afas in the society
exercise that, that was his first experience in life as an with regards to delay in the distribution of estate in
Alfa to witness actual physical distribution of estate Ilorin and Kwara State in general would not be com-
even though he had been involved in the teaching of plete without reference to the fact that they fail (by
students of Madrasat Arabic and Islamic Knowledge omission or commission) to emphasize the importance
(including theoretical rules of Islamic Law of Inher- of early distribution of estate during the usual third,
itance) for more than ten years or thereabout. fifth or eighth day (as the case may be) fidau prayer of
Similarly, during the course of this research, the re- the deceased Muslim. 78 In almost all fidau prayers,
Alfas / Afas do not or hardly make reference to this.
searcher’s experience, especially in a particular case70
What most of them do is to offer prayers for the repose
of estate distribution by some Alfas confirms that some
of the soul of the deceased Muslim and concentrate so
Alfas who are not well versed in the knowledge of Is-
much on matters that would enhance their personal
lamic Law of Inheritance, skill and art of distribution
indulge in estate distribution and find it difficult to turn gains in form of monetary income.79 The researcher is
not totally opposed to this since they do not have regu-
down invitation to distribute estate. 71 The particular
lar and consistent income nor other means of liveli-
case in question involved the distribution of ZYX es-
hood other than this service which is more of gratui-
tate. Inventory of the properties were taken as well as
tous community / religious service. They are however
the list of the entitled heirs. Amongst the properties are
enjoined to always devout some time to stress the im-
two real properties. One being a modern building situ-
portance and the need for early distribution of estate of
ated in commercial area of Ilorin while the other is
a deceased Muslim.
made of mud walls situated in the traditional Ilorin set-
up. By design and location, the two buildings do not 5. Ignorance of the Law
have the same monetary and or commercial value.
The researcher’s interaction with some heirs (who
Without ascribing value to them, the Alfas went ahead
plead to be made anonymous) during the course of this
to allocate the building with less commercial value to
research work shows that lack of knowledge of Islamic
particular heirs and the other to other heirs. This singu-
Law of Inheritance and the nature of inheritance right
lar act of the Alfas somehow infuriated the heirs be-
in Islam on the part of some or all the heirs, in some
cause they are from different mothers and the heirs
cases, is responsible for delay in the distribution of es-
halted, 72 further distribution of the estate. The distri- tate amongst the Muslim communities of Kwara State.
bution could not be carried out to a logical conclusion Majority of heirs interacted with do not realize that
by the Alfas because of their in experience and lack of there is need for quick and timely distribution of estate.
possession of the art and skills of estate distribution. They do not see time as having any essence in distrib-
The Alfas, though, did not leave without taking hono- uting the estate of a deceased Muslim.
rarium for a service not rendered.
At times, ignorance is not limited to the law relating to
Unlike the past great Islamic scholars of Ilorin, today the rules and principles of Islamic Law of Inheritance
the bulk of those within the class of Alfas of Ilorin in but also extends to the law relating to the legal system
particular and Kwara State in general, are people who in respect of where, how and what method to adopt in
do not go beyond the Idadiyyah 73 Schools yet they seeking redress. The case of one princess Bilikisu
claim to be Islamic Scholars whereas in reality, their Gambari illustrates this point. The princess, though
knowledge of Islam itself is shallow, bearing in mind educated, by a letter dated 19th August, 2007 to the
the downward trend of knowledge (both mundane and Grand Kadi, Kwara State Sharia Court of Appeal, Ilor-
religious) generally.74 This, coupled with the fact that in inviting him to distribute the estate of her late father
6
in their quasi-judicial function. The Grand Kadi de- The estate of one late Alhaji Abdullahi illustrates this
clined the invitation because the invitation letter was point. The deceased was survived by both male and
signed by her alone. She was directed to get the other female children, wives and a mini-housing estate of six
heirs to sign the letter. When she could not get other numbers of three-bedroom flats at Oke-Agodi Area of
heirs to sign the letter, she got disenchanted. 80 The Ilorin amongst other assets. The flats in question were
problem here is that she could not differentiate be- occupied by tenants who were paying just two hundred
tween the appellate judicial function of the Kadis of the (N200.00) Naira per flat per month prior to and after
Kwara State Sharia Court of Appeal, Ilorin from their the death of the deceased. After the death of the de-
quasi-judicial function. They do not have original ju- ceased, the tenants were instructed by the heirs to pay
risdiction to hear and determine inheritance matters. rent to some old women including the widows of the
What she ought to have done is to file a suit for distri- deceased as a kind of up-keep allowance. For many
bution of estate at any Upper Area Court or any Area years, the tenants were in default by owing accumulat-
Court Grade 1 in Ilorin and it would go to the Shariah ed rent running to years. The situation remained like
Court of Appeal on appeal where she is not satisfied that until one of the heirs (Musa Abdullahi) in 2001
with the distribution done at the court of first instance. volunteered and instructed the Law Firm of the re-
Instead of doing this, she took the wrong step because searcher to commence action against all the tenants and
of her ignorance of the law. From her action, she had eject all of them.83 Upon conclusion of the cases and
wanted a court distribution and not a distribution realizing the economic value of each flat,84 the other
through arbitration (sulh). heirs who had never shown any interest and were never
6. Laissez-Faire Attitude willing to spend their own resources (if at all they have
any) on the estate started agitating for distribution.
Experience arising from the researcher’s number of Though, the flats were eventually distributed but with-
years81 in legal practice in cases involving inheritance out the self-less and volunteer efforts of the research-
in accordance with Islamic Law in Ilorin in particular er’s client, the asset in question would have probably
and Kwara State in general, shows that “I don’t care” remained undistributed till today.
attitude of heirs accounts for delay in the distribution
8. Large Estate Involving Shares of Floated Com-
of estates of deceased Muslims in the area under refer-
panies Within and Outside Nigeria
ence. This attitude stems from lack of zeal and courage
amongst any of the heirs or even a non-heir to initiate Large estates involving shares of floated companies
the move to have the estate distributed. Absence of both within and outside Nigeria do constitute a cause
zeal and courage at times results from economic self of delay in the distribution of estates of deceased Mus-
sufficiency and or poverty. The combined effect of all lims. This is due to the fact that ordinarily, where the
these is that they provide enabling atmosphere for de- estate of a deceased Muslim is large, there is no doubt
lay of distribution of estate to thrive. that it will take some time to have the inventory taken
and get the assets verified and where such estate in-
7. Economic Self-Sufficiency/Poverty
volves shares of floated companies within and or out-
Economic status of the heirs, in some cases, constitutes side the country, it will certainly take more time for the
a cause of delay in the distribution of estate of a de- inventory to be taken and verified. Therefore, since
ceased Muslim of Ilorin and amongst the Muslims of these processes would have to be done before distribu-
other communities of Kwara State. By economic status tion takes place, this process would surely take a chunk
is meant the economic buoyancy or otherwise of the of time and cause some kind of delay in the distribu-
heirs. Thus where the heirs of a deceased Muslim are tion of such estates.
economically buoyant, they may not bother to address
Though, either as a researcher or as a private legal
their minds, for a very long time, to the issue of distri-
practitioner, in the course of this research work and
bution of estate. Likewise, where majority of the heirs
within the area of study, the researcher did not come
are economically self-sufficient and others are not and
across any estate involving distribution of large estate
the estate is in the hand(s) of those who are economi-
involving shares of floated companies either within and
cally buoyant, the heirs who are poor or weak, most
or outside this country. It is however, not improbable
especially on the part of the female heirs,82 would find
and or not impossible that such estate exists or has ex-
it a bit difficult to initiate estate distribution, especially isted in Ilorin in particular and Kwara State in general.
if the heirs are from a polygynous family. The estate closest to what is being discussed here and
found in the course of this research work is the estate
7
of late Alhaji Adebayo Busari Alaya 85 who died some- Therefore, to demand from such a person the immedi-
time in 2004 or thereabout. The real properties alone in ate distribution of estate is more of an “abomination”
the estate under reference were classified into A – F. and would amount to disrespect of the highest magni-
tude to an authority tantamount to undermining the
Properties in classification “A” consisted of five rooms authority of the head of the family. This practice seems
and five room and parlours, i. e., A1-A10 at Ero-Omo, to be a carry over of one of the practices of pre-Islamic
Offa Garage Area in Ilorin while properties in classifi- period of the Arabs prior to the advent of Islam as ex-
cation “B” consisted of six flats, i. e. B1-B6 at opposite
emplified in the case of estate of Aus bin Malik88 (R.
Afro-Works, off Offa Garage Road, Ilorin. Within “C”
A.). These days, greed, love of materialism and desire
classification are properties consisting of twenty shops,
to do justice leading to injustice is often the reasons
six numbers of 4-bedroom bungalows, nine numbers of
3-bedroom bungalows and a 2-bedroom bungalow, all why such persons hold on to estates of the deceased.89
at Adewole Estate in Ilorin. The properties in class “D” Today, when heirs wait endlessly for the estate to get
are buildings behind Petrol Stations (D1-D3). These distributed due to operation of customs and tradition or
are three numbers of room and parlour with separate any other cause and the distribution is not forthcoming,
kitchen and toilet behind Offa Garage Road Petrol Sta- by the time their patience is over stretched, the heirs
tion, two numbers of rooms and parlour with kitchen resort to court litigation as a necessary tool of effecting
behind Lagos Road Petrol Station, a parlour and three distribution but unfortunately, this tool, eventually and
numbers of rooms with kitchen behind Lagos Road in most cases, turns out to be another cause of inordi-
Petrol Station. Properties in classification “E”, i. e., E1- nate delay due to our snail like pace of justice admin-
E6 consists of plots of undeveloped land. “E1” is 32 istration. 90 Most court litigations involving distribu-
plots of land at New Yidi/Asa Dam Road in Ilorin tion of estate result from this endless waiting. Delay,
while “E2” is 2 plots of land behind Olunlade Petrol whether ordinary or inordinate, can therefore be de-
Station in Ilorin. “E3’ is 3 plots of land at Eiyenkorin scribed as a keg of gun powder ready to explode at the
Village while “E4” consists of 3 plots of land along appropriate time with very devastating effects and
Ballah Road. “E5” is 3 plots of land at Eiyenkorin- grave consequences.91
Ballah Road and “E6” consists of 45 plots of land near
Lagos Road Super Moon Petrol Station in Ilorin. The Conclusion
last class, class “F”( “F1-7”) consists of Mercedez This paper has identified and analysed: Fear of the use
Benz Station Wagon car (“F1”), Toyota Corolla car of supernatural powers, lawyers’ attitude, judges’ atti-
(“F2”), Land Rover van (“F3”), Styre Lorry (“F4”), tude, Ulamas’ role in the society, ignorance of the
Bull dozer (“F5”), Low Bed with Volvo head (“F5”) Law, Laissez-faire attitude, economic self-
nad Kama 3 Gane (“F6”) amongst others.86 In spite of sufficiency/poverty, large estate involving shares of
the volume of the properties involved in this estate, its floated companies within and outside Nigeria; and
distribution did not experience much delay as it was Customs/Culture/Tradition as causes of deday in the
concluded on 26th July, 2006 by the then Grand Kadi distribution of estates of deceased Muslims in Ilorin in
and his two other brother Kadis in their quasi-judicial particular and Kwara State in general.
functions (arbitration-sulh).
9. Customs/Culture/Traditions
Customs and traditions 87 inhibit early distribution of
estates of deceased Muslims in Ilorin in particular and
Kwara State as a whole. The inhibition results from
cultural belief that where either the father, uncle or a
grown up son of the deceased controls everything left
behind by the deceased, it is customarily and culturally
a taboo for any of the heirs of the deceased to demand
it from such head of the family, or to ask him to release
the estate for distribution among the heirs. This is be-
cause the people believe that it is the duty and respon-
sibility of the head of the family to maintain, manage
and control the affairs of the dependants (in this case,
including the dependants left behind by the deceased).
8
References and Endnotes

8
It is trite principle of Islamic Law that a Muslim adult is
1 free to dispose intra-vivo any quantity of his wealth to any
This fact is manifested in the number of mosques of vari-
ous sizes and grades all over the nooks and crannies of body of his choice by way of either a gift or outright sale.
Ilorin. If the number of these mosques are any thing to go
9
“…Unto Him belongeth what is in the heavens and what-
by, then there is no doubt about the assertion above. soever is in the earth…” see Qur’an 1 : 2.
10
Though, there are a handful of non-Muslims in Ilorin, Islam and in fact Islamic Law does not frown at a Muslim
their number is so negligible that they do not constitute a (a Muslim of Ilorin inclusive) acquiring wealth, see
significant percentage of the people of the town. Qur’an 4:32 where it provides: “for men is the benefit of
2
The Yorubas of Kwara State can broadly be classified into what they earn.” However, it frowns at acquiring unlawful
four: the native Yorubas of Ilorin (who are found in Asa, wealth through lawful or unlawful means. Islamic Law
Ilorin West, South and East, and some parts of Moro Lo- therefore enjoins acquisition of lawful wealth through
cal Government Areas), the Ibolos (who are found in Offa, lawful means because every person shall account for how
Erin-Ile, Ira, Igosun), the Igbominas (who are found in and what he or she acquired and how he or she spent his
Oro, Omu Aran, Ajase-Ipo, Oke-Ode, Igbaja and Oro- or her wealth, see Qur’an 2 : 198, Qur’an 2 : 275, Qur’an
Ago) and the Ekitis (who are found in Ekiti Local Gov- 2 : 188, Qur’an 2 : 219, Qur’an 2 : 173, Qur’an 4 : 32.
11
ernment Area of the State). The dialects and the cul- It is one of those pre-destined things which man has no
ture/custom of these four Yoruba speaking communities control over. Equally, a person does not have control over
of Kwara State vary from one speaking dialect to the oth- when, where and how he or she will die.
er. Apart from these native Yoruba communities of Kwara
12
“We have ordained death among you…” Qur’an 56: 60,
State, there are also Yorubas of the neighbouring Yoruba the Prophet is reported to have said: “Be in this world as a
speaking States of Oyo, Osun, Ondo, Ogun, Ekiti and La- stranger or as a wayfarer” to show that death is eminent,
gos. The dialects and culture/custom of these other Yoru- see M.O.A. Abdul, The Selected Traditions of AL-
ba speaking communities of these States vary from those NAWAWI (The Forty Traditions of AL-NAWAWI Arabic
of the Yorubas of Kwara State. Text, Transliteration, Translation & Commentary) (Book
3
The most prominent activities are: wedding (Nikkah) cere- 4), (Lagos: Islamic Publications Bureau, 1974), 86-87.
13
monies, Naming ceremonies and funeral rites and their in- Allah by His volition permitted the Muslim to act by his
cidental issues such as divorce (talaq), paternity, inher- discretion in one third of his estate in his possession. Abu
itance which are done in accordance with the principles, Hurayrah reported that the Prophet (SAW) said: “God Al-
doctrines and procedures of Islamic Law. mighty did a favour to you at the time of Your death
4
This probably accounts for provision of Area Courts, Up- through one third of your property so that your good
per Area Courts and Shar’iah Court of Appeal in the town deeds might increase” – Sunnan Ibn Madja, see Al-
and other parts of Kwara State to cater for disputes and Asqalani, Bulugh Al-Maram, (Part 2) (Riyadh: Dar-us-
controversies that may arise amongst the people, see Part Salam Publications,1996/1416), Paragraph 822, 340-341.
II, Section 3, Area Court Law 1968 and Sections 275, 277, This discretion should however, not be exercised to the in-
278 & 279 of the 1999 Constituiton of the Federal Repub- jury of the lawful heirs.
14
lic of Nigeria, Cap. C23, Laws of Federation of Nigeria, Directives regarding the distribution of estate after the
2007. demise of the provisional owner are explicitly detaile in
5
The death of an Ilorin Muslim, like in any other part of the Qur’an 4:11-12.
15
world, brings to the fore the issue of inheritance amongst It is a common practice of the Muslims of Ilorin and in-
the heirs of the estate left behind by the deceased. deed other Muslim Communities of Kwara State to an-
6
Man, whether Muslim, non-Muslim, humanist or atheist, nounce to the public on the eight day fidau prayer for any-
white, Caucasian or negro, Nigerian or non-Nigerian anybody indebted to the deceased or vice versa to the rela-
where in the Universe, has an insatiable instinct to acquire tions of the deceased for prompt settlement. This is to en-
wealth. In buttressing this fact, the Prophet (SAW) is re- able the relations to take inventory of the assets and liabil-
ported to have said: “If people are given in accordance ities left behind by the deceased. Whoever the deceased is
with their claims, some people may claim the property and owed and refuses to make the debt known to the relations
blood-shedding of others…” to depict the tremendous in- of the deceased, such a creditor is presumed to have
satiable instinct of possession and acquisition in human waived the debt for the deceased but this does not apply in
beings; see M.B. Sambo & H. Mohammad, Islamic Reli- a situation where the deceased is the creditor.
16
gious Knowledge For WASC (Book 3), (Islamic Publica- Re -Estate of Alhaji Amusa Bashar, (Ilorin: Annual Report
tions Bureau, Lagos, 1974), 116. of Kwara State Sharia Court of Appeal, 1997). 159-165;
7
The Muslims in Ilorin and of other parts of Kwara State, Re-Esatate of Alhaji Mohammad Busari, Ilorin: Annual
because of their Islamic and religious background are al- Report of Kwara State Sharia Court of Appeal, 1999),
ways mindful of the verses of Glorious Quar’an 2:198, 140-147.
17
275 in their struggle to acquire wealth. Re-Estate of Alhaji Yahaya Gold, (Ilorin: Annual Report
of Kwara State Sharia Court of Appeal, 2006), 308-320,
9
Alhaji Alabi Opobiyi Vs. Alhaja Senabu Abebi Masingba posed off, hence his daughter stepped in and she and her
(1982) C. A. 11 (Pt. I), 206. other siblings received Late Akanni Akibu’s share in the
18
Some years ago, in the course of the author’s private legal estate.
31
practice in Ilorin, a client related a nasty and pathetic story Op. cit.
32
on how his spiritually powerful uncle sat on real property Opobiyi v. Muniru (2004) 5 F. R. 43.
33
of his father. Nobody amongst the heirs of his father had Certified True Copy of Ruling of Court of Appeal, Ilorin
the gut to challenge either the said uncle while alive or the Division, delivered by J. C. A. Muntaka Coomassie, (as he
children of the said uncle even ten years after the death of was then) [Monday, 6th February, 2006], 5.
the uncle in question despite the fact that the heirs were 34
Appellants’ counsel filed Appellants’ Brief of Argument,
then grown up and of age. a necessary step in hearing of the appeal.
19
M. H. Y. Kaniki, “Religious Conflict and Cultural Ac- 35
Within the class referred to as the courts are the Area
commodation: The Impact of Islam on Some Aspects of Courts which include the Upper Area Court (in both origi-
African Societies”, UTAFITI Journal of the Arts and So- nal and appellate functions), the Shari’ah Court of Appeal,
cial Sciences, A Journal of the Faculty of Arts and Social the Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court in their appel-
Sciences, University of Dar es Salaam, Vol. 1, No. 1, late jurisdictions.
36
(1976): 95. The other two classes are the Ulamas, i. e, Alfas / Afas
20
In the case of Muslims of Ilorin and the Muslims of Kwara (Local Mallams), and Kadis of the Kwara State Sharia
State, in most cases and in most of the situations, the Glo- Court of Appeal in their quasi-judicial functions.
rious Qur’an is the basis of the power behind Islamic 37
Shari’ah Court of Appeal, Court of Appeal and the Su-
magic and it allows the use of charms in averting evil, preme Court.
38
provided only names of Allah and words and phrases from Section 277 (1), Constitution of the Federal Republic of
the Qur’an and other invocatory books are used. Nigeria 1999. See also Section 242 (1), Constitution of the
21
The few cases involving litigation sited are extreme ex- Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1979 in respect of Sharia
ceptions to the general rule because distribution of estates Court of Appeal.
39
in Ilorin are not usually done through court litigation See Section 10 (1), Sharia Court of Appeal Law, Cap. S4,
22
Right of appeal is a constitutional right of litigants that Revised Edition (Laws of Kwara State of Nigeria) Law,
should be utilized properly and not wrongly by their coun- 2006 which is in pari material with Section 10 (1), Cap.
sel. Hence, counsel should advise their clients properly in 122, Laws of Northern Nigeria, 1963, in respect of Sharia
the best interest of the clients. Court of Appeal and Sections 244 and 233 of the Consti-
23
Unreported Suit No. UACI/CVF/9/2002 delivered on 08- tution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999, in respect
04-2005. of Appeal from Sharia Court of Apeal to Court of Appeal
24
State High Court in its appellate jurisdiction. See Unre- and from Court of Appeal to the Supreme Court respec-
ported High Court (Appeal) Suit No. KWS/8A/06 where tively.
40
one Mrs Jibola Adebayo for herself and other appellants Op. cit., a case conducted by the researcher, delivered on
applied to withdraw the appeal and the appeal was thereaf- 9th May, 2007.
41
ter struck out on 23rd January, 2007. Op. cit., suit handled by the Law Firm of the researcher,
25
Mallam Akanni Akibu & 5 Others v. Mrs Iyabo Imam delivered on 8th April, 2005.
42
(KWS/SCA/CV/AP/IL/05/2005), see also Sharia Court of Sections 3 (1), 70 (1) & (2) Native Courts Law, Cap. 78,
Appeal Annual Report (Kwara State, 2006), 68. Laws of Northern Nigeria, 1963.
26 43
Mrs. Iyabo Imam v. Mallam Akanni Akibu & 5 Others Section 3 (1) Area Courts Law, Cap. A9 Revised Edition
(KWS/SCA/CV/M/IL/15/2005), see also Sharia Court of (Laws of Kwara State of Nigeria) Law, 2006 which is in
Appeal Annual Report (Kwara State, 2006) 55 at 67. pari material with Section 3 (1) Area Courts Law, Cap. 9,
27
Mallam Akanni Akibu, op. cit., 68 at 72. Annual Vols. of the Laws of Kwara State of Nigeria, 1967
28
Mallam Akanni Akibu & 5 Others v. Mrs Iyabo Imam, un- and 1968. See also Section 3(1), The Area Courts Edict,
reported Suit No. KWS/8A/06. Edict No. 2, Annual Vols. of the Laws of Kwara State of
29
The withdrawal was probably as a result of Counsel realiz- Nigeria, 1967.
44
ing the fact that there is a fundamental defect in the notice Section 2, Native Courts Law, Cap, 78, Laws of Northern
and grounds of appeal and the relief(s) sought from the Nigeria, 1963; See also Section 4 (1) (a) (b) and (2), Area
Court transferred from Sharia Court of Appeal to High Courts Law, Cap. 9, Laws of Kwara State, 1968.
45
Court are not tenable before the State High Court in its Section 61 (1) & 2 (a) & (b) Native Courts Law, Cap. 78,
appellate jurisdiction but only tenable in the Sharia Court Laws of Northern Nigeria 1963.
46
of Appeal. The State High Court in its appellate jurisdic- Majority of them attended Makarantar Alo, Makarantar
tion cannot distribute estate in accordance with Islamic Ilimi and or Kano Law School.
47
Law. Section 4A (2), Area Courts Law, Cap A9, Revised Edi-
30
Unreported Suit No. CVFM/3/2007 delivered on 09-05- tion (Laws of Kwara State of Nigeria) Law, 2006.
2007. Mrs. Tinuke Akibu is daughter of Mallam Akanni
Akibu. Akanni Akibu died before the matters were dis-
10
48 62
Section 4A (1) (a) & (b), Area Courts Law, Cap A9, Re- A random sampling of very few of them are: Shaykh
vised Edition (Laws of Kwara State of Nigeria) Law, Abubakar Bube, Shaykh Abubakar Salekoto, Shaykh
2006. Sa’du Kokewukobere, Shaykh Muhammad Jami’ Tajul-
49
Section 2 (1) Legal Practitioners Act 1962, now Legal Adab, Shaykh Muhammad Kamaldeen al-Adaby, Shaykh
Practitioners Act, Cap. 207, Laws of the Federation, 1990; Adam Abdullahi al- Ilori and a lot of them too numerous
See also Section 24, Legal Practitioners Act which defines to mention here. For a more detail list, see Z. I. Oseni,
a “Legal Practitioner” as a “person entitled in accordance “Arabic and Islamic Scholarship in Ilorin” in S.A. Jimoh,
with the Legal Practitioners Act to practice as a barrister (Ed.), (ILORIN: Centre of Learning, Ilorin: Jimson Pub-
and solicitor either generally or for the purpose of any par- lishers, n. d.), pp. 56-65.
ticular office or proceeding”. 63
Among those in this category are: Shaykh Abdul-Raheem
50
Attitude of Court staff, attitude of lawyers (already dis- Ameen Abata, Hon. Justice Abdul-Kadir Orire (retired
cussed above), attitude of Court not sitting at times, poor Grand Kadi, Kwara State), Hon. Justice Mutallib Ahmad
condition of service and corrupt tendencies. Ambali (retired Grand Kadi, Kwara State), Shaykh Mu-
51
(2006) Annual Report of Kwara State Sharia Court of hammad Bashir Salih, Shaykh Safiyullah Kamaldeen, Dr.
Appeal, Ilorin, 262 Isa Alabi, Dr. Hamzah Ishola Abdur-Raheem, Prof.
52
Ibid, p. 269, see also Funmilayo Ajoke v. Taiye Ile Ba- Badamasi Olanrewaju Yusuf, Shaykh Waliyu Ali-Kamal,
logun (Suit No. KWS /SCA/CV/AP/IL/13/2001) case Prof. Abdul Baqi Agaka and a host of others too numerous
listed as No. 32 (disposed of after 3 ½ years, in 10 ad- to mention. For a more detailed list see Oseni, Ibid.
64
journments) in (2001) Annual Reports of Kwara State Interview with Hon. Justice Ambali, op.cit.; see also M. A.
Sharia Court of Appeal, Ilorin, at xx. Ambali,. Islamic Law Principles of Reconciliation and
53
Asemota, Solomon “Unhealthy State of the Nation”, Opin- Arbitration, ( Ijebu-Ode: Shebiotimo Publications, 1431
ion, The Guardian, Thursday, (April 14, 2011): 79. A. H./2010 C. E.), 35.
54
U. Lawani, “Salami vs. Katsina-Alu”, Opinion, The 65
For instance, Alhaji Abdus-Salam Oniwiridi Pakata,
Guardian, (Thursday, February 15, 2011), 67. Shaykh Ahmad Rufa’i b. Abubakar Inda-Salati amongst
55
Asemota, op. cit. others are acclaimed and known for specialization in Su-
56
Asemota, op. cit. fism of the Tijjaniyyah and Kadiriyyah sects respectively
57
MCIA/225/2011 in Ilorin.
58 66
These were the former four semi-autonomous hamlets of Shaykh Abdul-Raheem Ameen Abata is known and ac-
Gaa Fulani, Gambari, Oke-Suna and Idiape which confed- claimed scholar with specialization in general Arabi
erally formed Ilorin at that time. See L.A.K. Jimoh, andIslamic Scholarship and Da’wah. He is the Chief Mis-
(ILORIN: The Journey So Far, Ilorin: Atoto Press Ltd, sioner of Ansarul-Islam Society of Nigeria (“Oni wasi
1994), 51. agbaye”).
59 67
Solagberu, an itinerant Muslim preacher was the leader Ambali, op. cit, 35.
68
and head of Oke-Suna which was predominantly a Mus- This is often not the fault of the Alfas because the layman
lim settlement and around him “flocked Mohammedans or the ordinary man sees anybody in the position of an Al-
from Gbanda, Kobayi, Igboho, Kuwo and Kobe. All in his fa to be a person knowledgeable and versed in the law,
quarters being Moslems” shows that Ilorin before the arri- skill and art of estate distribution.
69
val of Sheikh Alimi had Islamic scholars; See Jimoh, Op. cit., carried out on Saturday, 18th May, 2008.
Ibid., 52. See also A.S. Hassan, A.J. and Ibrahim, “Ilorin 70
The researcher wishes to make the identity of the heirs and
Emirate: Its People and Politics” in Jimoh, S. A. (Ed.), (n. the estate anonymous in accordance with undertaking with
d.), (ILORIN: Centre of Learning, Ilorin: Jimson Publish- one of the heirs on 26th July, 2008 not to make the partic-
ers), 8. ulars and details public.
60 71
After the arrival of Sheikh Alimi, the number of Islamic Probably due to the anticipated honorarium they will get
scholars in Ilorin continued to blossom because from far from such exercise.
72
and near, all over Yorubaland and beyond, Muslims To avoid disharmony among the heirs and to allow tem-
flocked to Sheikh Alimi and Ilorin became “a sort of Is- pers to cool down in order to invite another set of Mallams
lamic lighthouse to which the Yoruba Muslim turned for to do the distribution.
study and guidance”. See Jimoh, 53. 73
Equivalent of Junior Secondary School (JSS) while Sana-
61
He is no doubt an Islamic scholar of repute, he is of “high wi is the Senior Secondary School (SSS) equivalent.
intellect and wide experience in the different fieldof Islam- 74
H. Abdulsalam, “The Practice of Islamic Law of Inher-
ic Science such as Jurisprudence and Quranic exegesis of itance: Correction of Some Anomalies”, NATAIS, Vol. 6,
Jalalayn especially of the second half of the Qur’an which No. 2, (September, 2002): 42.
no one else had in Ilorin”. See A. S. Hassan and A. J., Ib- 75
M. B. Y. M. Q. Imam Abu Abdullahi, Sunan Ibn -i-Majah
rahim, op. cit., 8, see also Jimoh, op. cit., 50. See further (Vol. IV), (English Version by Muhammad Tufai Ansari),
S. Johnson, The History of the Yorubas (Lowe & Brydone Book of Fara’id, (Rules of Inheritance) Hadith No. 2717,
Printers Ltd, 1921), 194. (New Delhi: Nusrat Ali Nasri for Kitab Bhavan, 2005),
108.
11
76 89
Experts as used here is not limited to Islamic Law experts Interview with Hon. Justice M. A. Ambali, (rtd), op. cit.
90
alone but includes other professionals such as estate valu- So many factors account for the snail like pace of admin-
ers, automobile engineers, motor mechanics, stockbrokers istration of justice in Ilorin. These include lawyers atti-
and a host of other professionals. tude, attitude of court staff and the court not sitting at
77
A. A. Oba, “The Sharia Court of Appeal: Accounting to times and too many cases in a particular court due to non
the Public in Kwara State”, The Jurist, An Annual Publi- conclusion as at when due.
cation of Law Students’ Society, Vol. 10 (Ilor- 91
See Alhaji Alabi Opobiyi v. Alhaja Senabu Abebi Masing-
in:University of Ilorin, Ilorin, 2005), 165. ba (1982) C. A. (Pt. 1), 206; Ahaji Saka Opobiyi v.
78
Abdulsalam, op. cit. Layiwola Muniru in Unreported Suit No. CA/IL/SH/3/99
79
Abdulsalam, op. cit. delivered on 11th day of July, 2002 and Alhaji Saka
80
The Nation Newspaper , September 13th, (2007): 8. Opobiyi v. Muniru (2011) 12 MJSC (Pt. II).
81
From 1998 to 2011.
82
This is what Ahaji Murtala Abdul-Ganiyu described as Selected Bibliography
gender oppression in my interview with him on the 1st Abdul, M.O.A. The Selected Traditions of AL-NAWAWI
day of September, 2010. (The Forty Traditions of AL-NAWAWI Arabic Text, Translit-
83
Mr. Musa Abdullahi v. G. B. Amao, unreported Suit No. eration, Translation & Commentary) (Book 4). Lagos: Is-
MCI/1017/2001 concluded on 28-03-2002, Mr. Musa Ab- lamic Publications Bureau, 1974.
dullahi v. Mr. P. A. Operemu, unreported Suit No. Abdulsalam, H. “The Practice of Islamic Law of Inher-
MCI/138/2002 and Mr. Musa Abdullahi v. Mr. A. Ibrahim, itance: Correction of Some Anomalies.” NATAIS, Vol. 6,
unreported Suit No. MCI/1016/2001 concluded on 28-03- No. 2, (September, 2002).
2002. also A.S. Hassan, A.J. and Ibrahim, “Ilorin Emirate: Its Peo-
84
A modern 3-bedroom flat with electricity and pipe borne ple and Politics” in Jimoh, S. A. (Ed.), (n. d.), ILORIN: Cen-
water which was hitherto let out for a paltry sum of tre of Learning, Ilorin: Jimson Publishers.
N200.00 per month, instantly attracted the sum of Ambali,. M. A. Islamic Law Principles of Reconciliation
N2,000.00 per month with a year rent paid in advance by and Arbitration. Ijebu-Ode: Shebiotimo Publications, 1431
the same tenants who were in default of payment of two A. H./2010 C. E.
hundred Naira per month as at 2001/2002. Imam Abu Abdullahi, Sunan Ibn -i-Majah (Vol. IV), (Eng-
85
Annual Report, (Ilorin, Kwara State Sharia Court of Ap- lish Version by Muhammad Tufai Ansari), Book of Fara’id,
peal, 2006), 338, especially at 366-403. (Rules of Inheritance), New Delhi: Nusrat Ali Nasri for
86
Alhaji Adebayo Busari Alaya, op. cit., 366-403. Kitab Bhavan, 2005), 108.
87
The Yoruba custom is generally silent on the time frame Johnson, S. The History of the Yorubas. Lowe & Brydone
within which to effect distribution of estate of a deceased. Printers Ltd, 1921.
However, it is a common practice among the Yorubas, es- Kaniki, M. H. Y. “Religious Conflict and Cultural Accom-
pecially the Ijebu, to distribute the estate after the final fu- modation: The Impact of Islam on Some Aspects of African
neral ceremony called iwolefu. The exact date of iwolefu Societies.” UTAFITI Journal of the Arts and Social Scienc-
is usually agreed upon by the family and the economic es, A Journal of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences,
situation of the relatives play significant role in determin- University of Dar es Salaam, Vol. 1, no. 1, (1976).
ing this date. Where the families of the deceased are eco- L.A.K. Jimoh, ILORIN: The Journey So Far. Ilorin: Atoto
nomically strong, they fix it at forty days and in other cas- Press Ltd, 1994.
es, a year later to enable each member prepare adequately. Oseni, Z. I. “Arabic and Islamic Scholarship in Ilorin” in
See Y. Sodiq, “An Analysis of Yoruba and Islamic Laws Jimoh, S. A. (Ed.), ILORIN: Centre of Learning, Ilorin: Jim-
of Inheritance” The Muslim World, Vol. 86, Issue 3-4, son Publishers, n. d.
(April, 2007): 322. Sodiq, Y. “An Analysis of Yoruba and Islamic Laws of
88
When Aus bin Malik (R.A.) passed away, he left behind a Inheritance” The Muslim World, Vol. 86, Issue 3-4, (April,
wife, two young daughters and an infant son. The cousins 2007).
of the deceased took away whatever was left behind. The
Widow of Aus bin Malik (R.A.) brought her complaint to
Rasulullah (SAW) and informed him that she and her chil-
dren were totally deprived of their inheritance. Rasulullah
(P.B.U.H.) asked her to be patient until Allah Ta’ala re-
vealed something in this regard and not long after this, a
similar incident occurred with the Widow of Sa’ad bin
Rabi’ (R. A.). See Qur’an 4:7 where Allah provides that:
“And for the males is a share of what has been left behind
by the parents and relatives and for the females is a share
of what has been left by the parents and relatives”.
12
Knowledge―Toward Bridging Religious and Modern Sciences:

Bediuzzaman Said Nursi’s Approach
Abstract
In the recent past, the world has witnessed massive progress and development in the field of science. So
many factors like technological know-how, new inventions and discoveries, enhancement of health and hy-
giene, globalization, and others govern the current trend. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi expressed that the cur-
rent period―dominated by the scientific developments―demands to weld religious knowledge and the one
based on experiments―scientific knowledge―together. Said Nursi endeavored vehemently to revitalize the
prevailing system of education and the proposal of the university―Madresatü’z Zehrā was a step toward
the accomplishment of the aforementioned dream. Nursi’s own life as well as his writings (Risale-i-Nur)
greatly contributed to the need and necessity of the integration of knowledge.
In this context, the current study is a humble effort to present besides the concept of knowledge, an over-
view of Said Nursi’s attempts and approach towards the integration of religious and scientific knowledge
for the prosperity and all-round development of humanity. The study also highlights that these efforts,
meant to revitalize the concept of knowledge in a broader sense, were aimed to solve religion-science con-
troversy or religion science compatibility.
Keywords: Said Nursi, Knowledge, Science, Religion, Revitalize, Civilization, Ulamā, Skepticism
Knowledge: Understanding the Concept according to the Qur’ān and Sunnah is an ‘ālim and
In various Islamic discourses the term ‘ilm appears all such leaders are ‘ulamā’ on the path of right-
very frequently both in Qur’ān and Hadith. ‘Ilm de- eousness.5
rived from the root word ‘-l-m means the cognitive
Said Nursi demonstrates that the ‘ulamā’ are those
understanding of a particular thing and thereafter its
whose actions are in complete harmony with what they
acquisition. 1 The terms like ‘ilm, hikmah, ma‘rifah, propound and are also adorned with the pearls of sin-
fiqh, etc―and their verbs and verbal derivatives―time cerity. Validating the argument, Nursi quotes the Had-
and again find their representation in Qur’ān and Had- ith of the Messenger (SAW)
ith 2 that further adds to the characteristic beauty of
‘ilm. ‘Ilm and ma‘rifah seem to be synonymous terms All men will perish, except the scholars, and all
“but because of the various derivatives of ma‘rifah scholars will perish except those who act in accord-
such as ‘ārif or ‘arrāf it intended to be used for the ance with their knowledge, and all of them will per-
knowledge acquired through reflection and experience ish except the sincere …6
presupposing a previous ignorance.” 3 In Islam, the For Said Nursi, the term ‘lim is not merely concerned
scholars who are dedicated and pious come under the with religious knowledge but it represents knowledge
category of “those who know” and are assigned the in the broadest sense. However, he has divided it into
title ‘ulamā’ (sing. ‘ālim). Inquisitive seeking and two broad categories viz. aqli and naqli wherein the
search for knowledge is the prime duty assigned to the former is connected with the religious sciences and the
Muslims (talab al-‘ilm).4 Yunus Gilani while defining later with the physical sciences. Apparently, it looks as
the term ‘ulamā’ says: if Said Nursi’s approach is dichotomous but he makes
‘Ulamā’ (sing. ‘ālim) are the possessors of ‘lim it clear by saying that in fact all the knowledge is reli-
(knowledge, science, scholarship) of whatever kind gious, irrespective of its source or nature. According to
and from whichever source, provided they work him, religious sciences (aqli) and the physical sciences
under the hidāyah, revealed divine guidance, com- (naqli) are not antagonistic, rather they complement
municated through the Rusul (Messengers of Allah one another.7
(SWT), final in the line being Hazrat Muhammad
(SAW) and now finally contained in the Qur’ān and Scholars, philosophers, and intellectuals have defined
Sunnah. Thus, every scientist, scholar, intellectual the term knowledge according to their own understand-
and social engineer with the salāiyyah (capability) ing and knowhow. For Sayyid Qutb, knowledge is
in his field along with saliiyyah (piety and virtue) something that is beyond mere understanding.
derived from his īmān (belief in) and ‘amal (action) Knowledge is in the real sense an absolute comprehen-
13
sion and understanding of a particular thing by the It can be pointed out from the above discussion that
mind, linked and interlinked with the soul and con- the spring of all the knowledge is Allah which reaches
science, and is finally realized by way of actions. In the to the Messengers through wahy. It is through the
general sense, knowledge means a total harmony be- wahy that Allah invites and appeals the mankind to
tween mind, soul, and the body. 8 Plato, a famous make use of the reason and perception (‘Ayn al-Yaqin).
Greek philosopher, articulates that “knowledge is of This has been illustrated in different Ayāt of the
the world of forms or ideas which exist in the mind of Qur’ān. For example:
a person.” 9 Anis Ahmad while commenting on the
concept of knowledge says that: “Knowledge (‘ilm) in ٍٍ ‫ور‬ َ ‫ُس‬ ُ ِ‫ع ْب ِدنَا فَأْتُوا ب‬ َ ‫علَى‬ َ ‫ب مِ َّما ن ََّز ْلنَا‬ ٍ ‫َو ِإ ْن ُك ْنت ُ ْم فِي َر ْي‬
the Islamic tradition primarily refers to revealed ‫مِ ْن مِ ثْ ِل ِه‬
knowledge originating in wahy (revelation) and ac- And if you are in doubt concerning that which We
quired through sensory experience.” 10 As per Imām have sent down to Our slave (Muhammad ‫)ﷺ‬, then
Ghazāli, “Knowledge is like the fruit of a tree and it produce a Sūrah of the like thereof.14
flows from intellect, or like the light of the sun or like َّ َ‫ار َو َما َخلَق‬
‫اَّللُ فِي‬ ِ ‫اخت ََِلفِ اللَّ ْي ِل َوالنَّ َه‬ ْ ‫إِ َّن فِي‬
the vision of the eye. Why should it not be honoured ُ
َ‫ت ِلقَ ْو ٍم يَتَّقون‬ ٍ ‫ض ََليَا‬ َ َ
ِ ‫ت َواْل ْر‬ ْ ِ ‫ُس َم َاوا‬ َّ ‫ال‬
when it is the cause of the fortune in this world and the Verily, in the alternation of the night and the day and
next?” 11 One of the famous Muslim sociologists Ibn in all that Allah has created in the heavens and the
Khaldūn asserts that the knowledge can flourish only earth are Ayāt for those people who keep their duty to
in a society that is civilized and the same is achievable Allah, and fear Him much.15
through the faculty of reasoning. He further states: ِ‫ض َوا ْخت ََِلف‬ ِ ‫ت َو ْاْل َ ْر‬ ِ ‫ُس َم َاوا‬ َّ ‫ق ال‬ ِ ‫إِ َّن فِي خ َْل‬
“Man is a social animal and his prosecution of learning ‫ار َو ْالفُ ْلكِ الَّتِي تَجْ ِري فِي‬ ِ ‫اللَّ ْي ِل َوالنَّ َه‬
is conditioned by the nature of the material, intellectual ‫ُس َماءِ مِ ْن‬ َّ ‫اَّللُ مِ نَ ال‬ َّ ‫اس َو َما أ َ ْنزَ َل‬ َ َّ‫ْال َبحْ ِر ِب َما َي ْنفَ ُع الن‬
and spiritual forces of the civilisation in which he ٍ ٍ َّ‫ث فِي َها مِ ْن ُك ِل دَاب‬ َّ ‫ض َب ْعدَ َم ْو ِت َها َو َب‬ َ ‫َماءٍ فَأَحْ َيا ِب ِه ْاْل َ ْر‬
lives.”12 ِ‫ُس َماء‬
َّ ‫ُسخ ِر بَيْنَ ال‬ َّ ْ
َ ‫ب ال ُم‬ ِ ‫ُس َحا‬ َّ ‫الريَاحِ َوال‬ ِ ِ‫ص ِريف‬ ْ َ ‫َوت‬
ُ
َ‫ت ِلقَ ْو ٍم يَ ْع ِقلون‬ ٍ ‫ض ََليَا‬َ َ
ِ ‫َواْل ْر‬ْ
Said Nursi in a philosophical way endeavors to show Verily, in the creation of the heavens and the earth,
that the fountainhead of all the knowledge is the one and in the alternation of night and day, and the ships
who has created this Universe―Allah. The same be- which sail through the sea with that which is of use to
comes apparent from the passage below, taken from mankind, and the water (rain) which Allah sends down
‘The Rays’ wherein he says: from the sky and makes the earth alive therewith after
All the beautiful creatures which display the mani- its death, and the moving (living) creatures of all kinds
festations of an eternal beauty and loveliness espe- that He has scattered therein, and in the veering of
cially in the spring on the face of the earth, for in-
winds and clouds which are held between the sky and
stance the flowers, fruits, small birds and flies, and
especially the gilded, sparkling flying insects
the earth, are indeed Ayāt for people of understand-
…show their craftsman’s wondrous proficiency, ing.16
that they point decisively to a truly comprehensive ‫شيْئا‬َ َ‫ون أ ُ َّم َهاتِ ُك ْم ََل ت َ ْعلَ ُمون‬ ِ ‫ط‬ ُ ُ‫اَّللُ أ َ ْخ َر َج ُك ْم مِ ْن ب‬ َّ ‫َو‬
knowledge . . . While the phrase “and careful deco- َّ َ
َ‫ار َو ْاْل ْفئِدَ ٍ َ لَعَل ُك ْم ت َ ْش ُك ُرون‬ َ ‫ص‬ َ ‫ُس ْم َع َو ْاْل َ ْب‬ َّ ‫َو َجعَ َل لَ ُك ُم ال‬
ration” means that those fine artefacts are adorned And Allah has brought you out from the wombs of
in a way so agreeable, are decorated in a way so yours mothers while you know nothing. And He gave
sweet, display a beauty and art so attractive, that you hearing, sight, and hearts that you might give
their maker could create these works only through
thanks (to Allah).17
an infinite knowledge. This attentive adorning and
beautifying self-evidently point to a boundless and Likewise, in many Ahādith one finds the significance
all-encompassing knowledge . . . Throughout the and thus inevitability of the acquisition of knowledge
earth we see the making of wondrous living ma- coupled with the invitation to comprehend and under-
chines, some instantaneously and some in a minute stand the reality of the things by using the faculty of
or two, in orderly and measured fashion, each dif-
mind (‘aql). For example in a Hadith narrated by Abū
ferent from its fellows, with the greatest ease, aris-
ing from a thorough knowledge and skill, all of Mūsā (R.A), the Messenger (SAW) said:
which point to an infinite knowledge and testify The example of guidance and knowledge with
that the perfection of knowledge is proportionate to which Allah has sent me is like abundant rain fall-
the ease resulting from the skill and knowledge in ing on the earth, some of which was fertile soil that
the art. 13 absorbed rain-water and brought forth vegetation
and grass in abundance. (And) another portion of it
14
was hard and held the rain-water and Allah benefit- edged and verified by George Sarton (Introduction to
ed the people with it and they utilized it for drink- the History of Science, 1931) and a number of other
ing, (making their animals drink from it) and to ir- writers as well.20 In the same vein, R. Briffault while
rigate the land for cultivation. (And) a portion of it
acknowledging the Muslim contribution holds:
was barren, which could neither hold the water nor
bring forth vegetation (then the land was of no ben- Science is the most momentous contribution of Ar-
efit). The first is the example of the person who ab civilization to the modern world . . . which con-
comprehends Allah’s religion and gets benefit from stitutes the permanent distinctive force of the mod-
the knowledge, which Allah has revealed through ern world, and supreme source of its victory, natu-
me and learns and then teaches it to others. The ral science and the scientific spirit.21
(last example is that of a) person who does not care
for it and does not take Allah’s Guidance revealed George Sarton makes further exposition of the invalu-
through me (He is like the barren land.)18 able contribution of the Muslims to the scientific de-
The first above mentioned ayah and the reference from velopment by admitting that:
the Hadith reflects that the way is the main source of …It will suffice here to evoke a few glorious names
knowledge and the subsequent three ayāt signify the without contemporary equivalents in the West: Ja-
fact that the very knowledge can be realized by mak- bir IbnHayyan, al-Kindi, al-Khawarizmi … If any-
ing use of the faculty of mind, senses and as well as one tells you that the middle ages were scientifical-
through empiricism. There is no harm at all if a person ly sterile, just quote these men to him, all of whom
acquires knowledge by making use of his flourished within a short period, 750-1100 AD.22
mind―rationality or reasoning―provided it is guided The Legacy Shifts
and enmeshed within the very knowledge revealed by Unfortunately, in the later period, Muslims―the van-
Allah. The fact is that the faculty of mind (‘aql) and guard in the field of science and technology―not only
thereafter its use in gaining knowledge either through lost their way but also the long enchanted and cher-
rationalism, logic, or through empiricism, has un- ished scientific supremacy as well, especially from the
doubtedly serious limitations. Therefore, owing to this fifteenth century onwards. From then on, the status
fact if the intellect is not made subservient to the re- quo remained by and large the same in the whole Mus-
vealed knowledge, then it can mislead and misdirect lim world and continues to be so even now, thus, creat-
the entire humanity. ing mayhem like situation. On the one side, with the
Emergence of Modern Science passing of days, weeks, months, years, and centuries;
Science is a term derived from the Latin word “scire” the world witnessed the decadence of the scientific
which means to know. It is not a phenomenon that is glory of the Muslims and on the other, the same world
something fresh or new, rather it has a long history experienced the emergence of what is now called
spanning from the time of classical Greece to the re- ‘modern science’. The wholesome development did
naissance of the Europe. Therefore, science and its not take place all of a sudden; rather it materialized
historical development are usually considered as the exclusively via the shift and transfer of the intellectual
process of accumulation of techniques and the refine- and scientific legacy of the Muslims from the East
ment of quantitative methods in the study of nature (Muslim World) to the West (European World). From
progressively.19 then on, the West never looked back but made earnest
and stupendous efforts for the refinement, progress,
Muslim Contribution and development in the field of science and technolo-
It is an established fact that science and later on its gy. N. Amir, O. Shuriye, and F. Ismail have highlight-
advancement and development took place during the ed the same facet in the following lines as:
period of the Abbasids ruling the then Muslim World With the transfer of Islamic science to the west the
from Baghdad and the Umayyad reign in Spain (al- secular world developed monumental feat in scien-
Andalus). This period besides witnessing the cement- tific work ignited the thriving of renaissance and
the flourishing of scientific revolution and ad-
ing of Muslim Civilization, also experienced the un-
vancement in Europe. This modern progress of the
precedented development in the field of science. The west in science and technology was gained from the
development in almost every known field was indubi- transfer of Islamic civilization [from the East] to
tably unmatched in its creativeness, originality, and the west where the scientific and technological
universality in the entire world. The overall contribu- [knowhow] based in the Muslim world has com-
tion of the Muslims in the field of science is without pletely lost and defeated.23
any suspicion countless. The same has been acknowl-
15
In the post-Renaissance period, the society at large fresh Civilization], on its approach to which hung
witnessed the emergence of ‘Science’ not only as the the very question of its survival as a free and self-
foundation stone but also cherished its values so much respecting unit in the world and possessing distinc-
so that it formed the bedrock of the Western but Mod- tive personality of its own.
It was the problem posed by the civilization that
ern Civilization. The process of the advancement of the
was fresh, energetic and ambitious and overflowing
modern science―that thus emerged―had already with the potentialities of expansion and pro-
started in the fourteenth century and the later as well as gress―we mean, Western Civilisations which de-
the current period represents the immense personifica- served to be ranked among the mightiest civilisa-
tion of the phenomenon. In the later period, it contin- tion known to the history of mankind. 26
ued to evolve and progress with a colossal pace via
Renaissance and Industrial Revolution. However, the In modem times, Muslim thinkers were and still are
basic fact about modern science is that it fundamental- engaged in presenting their views on the issue of mod-
ly lays much emphasis on the cause, reason, objectivi- ern science and its compatibility with religion. While
ty, and effect and also on the significance of systematic observing the approach of the Muslims in tackling this
observation, experimentation and theory building. problem, one comes across three significant methods
and approaches. The first one is that of rejection and
In current times, it is making spectacular advancement
opposition to Western civilization in toto and complete
in each and every sphere of life in one way or the other
refusal to enquire ‘positives’ and ‘negatives’ of this
way and as a consequence, has raised the living stand-
powerful civilization. The second approach is a neutral
ard of the masses hitherto to unknown heights.24 Mod-
one; that neither supports nor opposes the above civili-
ern science, despite having an unrestricted but harmful
zation (approach of indifference).27 The third method
ramificat ion, continues to reverberate and awe-inspire
is the moderate one in which one delves deep, enquires
the entire world.25 However, at the same time, it also
and explores fully the bedrocks of this civilization.
cannot be denied―as is the fact―that modern science
What is significant in the approach is to take that in-
and technology will form the very core of the future
gredient from the Western Civilization which is fruit-
world developments.
ful and beneficial and accordingly, reject and refrain
Integration of Religious and Modern Sciences: Said from that which is detrimental and fruitless.
Nursi’s Approach
The first two approaches are by far ‘negative’ in all the
The unprecedented and unusual emergence of modern
senses as they can only lead the Muslim World toward
science and later on its encounter with the Islamic
further backwardness and remoteness. So, what is
World during the colonial and post-colonial era created
needed is to implement the third approach for having
chaos, confusion, and uneasiness among the Muslim
far reaching consequences and if desiring to solve the
masses. Consequently, the Muslims got heavily en-
problems the Muslim World is currently experiencing.
gaged in defining their approach and methodology vis-
One finds, while comprehending what Said Nursi has
à-vis Western Civilization. The new, rather alien Civi-
said in Risale-i-Nur, the advocacy of the aforemen-
lization for the Muslims was predominantly based on
tioned third method, thus, therein rests the uniqueness
material knowledge, technical know-how, innovation,
of the reformative activities of Bediuzzaman Said
invention and dominance of the world markets with its
Nursi.
products. However, dominating the entire globe, it still
failed miserably to provide the human soul a ray of Before reflecting on the views and approach of Said
light, a hint of (spiritual) inspiration or a strand of Nursi regarding the problem, it is demanding to briefly
faith. Though it achieved an unexpected economic and mention the environment in which he lived. Said Nursi
technological advancement, but at the same time failed encountered a period in which scientific advancements,
to cure the anxious souls. Abū al-Hasan Ali Nadwi, technological development, materialism and com-
who regards Western Civilization as one of the mighti- munism were at their climax. On the other hand, these
est one, has artistically summarized the wholesome very developments were used as a tool for spreading
development of the Western Civilization as well as the immorality as well as for raising doubts in the minds of
threat it posed to the Muslims. In the following lines he the Muslims vis-à-vis Islam. Also, in his home-
has expressed: land―Turkey, in the late Ottoman period attempts
Towards the middle of the Nineteenth Century the were made aimed at large to modernize the country.
Islamic World was called upon to face a grave and The situation presented such a picture as if the Western
intriguing problem [due to the encounter with the Civilization was the only model left to be imitated in
16
order to achieve success.28 Isra Yazicioglu writes: Initiating a dialogue between science and religion,
While the nineteenth and early twentieth century Nursi attempted to develop a theological understanding
was a time of great enthusiasm about science and of nature, as he revealed that the theology shared if not
technology in both the Western and the Muslim totally but to a great extent, the same domain as the
worlds, it was also a time when the ideas of athe- natural sciences. 38 He does not consider science as
ism and materialism were becoming much more
something that is alien or something that is beyond the
pronounced than ever before. In fact, many of the
Western-educated elite in Nursi’s milieu of late Ot- realm of religion. According to him, “. . . man has been
toman and early Turkish period saw the successes awakened and aroused by modern sciences in particu-
of science and technology as lending support to a lar; he has understood the true nature of humanity.”39 It
materialist and an atheistic worldview.29 means that Said Nursi tried to manifest that all the
knowledge is religious, irrespective of the source. Go-
In the times of Said Nursi, a good number of Muslim ing into the Risale-i Nur of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi,
intellectuals stood for the integration process of reli- one finds at large no opposition or dichotomy between
gious and modern sciences “in such a way that sheds
science and religion. This is further explicated and
light not only on the relevance to the present situation,
elaborated in ‘The Damascus Sermon’ as below:
but also in a way that defines universal principles.”30
Among them, the prominent one was Muammad Bediuzzaman thus demonstrated in the form of
Abdūh, who believed that “Science was a way of life easily understood stories, comparisons, explana-
rooted in freedom and progress; in its pure form, sci- tions, and reasoned proofs that, rather than the
ence, when properly married to religion, brings society truths of religion being incompatible with the find-
ings of modern science, the materialist interpreta-
to fulfillment.”31
tion of those findings is irrational and absurd. In-
Bediuzzaman Said Nursi—the Turkish religio-spiritual deed, Bediuzzaman proved in the Risale-i Nur that
science’s breathtaking discoveries of the universe’s
reformer—was greatly “interested in reconciling faith
functioning corroborate and reinforce the truths of
and reason, and Islam and science.” 32 His early life religion.40
which he refers as ‘Old Said’ represents a figure who is
excited more than enough about scientific progress and At one more place, Said Nursi says that “[a]ll science
technological advancement. It proved to be this period, and human progress outside religion and belief is
wherein one observes Said Nursi welcoming modern worth nothing, like the heroism of Rustam and Hercu-
science with lot of enthusiasm and passion, “albeit not les.” 41 He further says that “at the end of time, man-
without exhortations on maintaining faith and serving kind will pour into science and technology. It will ob-
humanity in God’s name.” 33 The ‘Old Said’ besides tain all its power from science. Power and dominion
highlighting the significance of reason invited Muslims will pass to the hand of science.”42 Said Nursi further
to study meticulously modern science and its under- holds that “the conscience is illuminated by the reli-
pinning values so as “to appreciate the Creator bet- gious sciences, and the mind is illuminated by the
ter.”34 physical sciences and wisdom occurs through the
combination of these two.” 43 Before him, religious
Said Nursi displayed a complete dissatisfaction toward education is the ‘light of conscience’ and modern edu-
the division of education system between maktab and cation the ‘light of mind,’ and when both are combined
madrasah in the country. Maktab system dealt with the together the ‘truth’ is revealed and if alienated then the
modern sciences and the madrasah with the religious former gives rise to ‘skepticism’ and the later to ‘fa-
sciences. His showing of discontent represents in some naticism’.44 The whole discussion makes it quite evi-
way or the other that the union and inseparability of dent that as per Said Nursi there is no valid contradic-
religious and modern science is in the current times an tion between the two sciences; and that any perceptible
obligatory act.35 It is this principle that should form a disagreement between them is only due to the misun-
basic starting point in terms of education policy. In an derstanding of either one. In this case, it is very much
endeavor to weld and reform these two seemingly con- fitting to quote hire verbatim:
flicting systems, Said Nursi dreamt of establishing a
Indeed, far from contradicting them, in uncovering
University 36 in eastern Anatolia namely Madresatü’z the order and working of the universe, science
Zehrā, with an intention to endow the seekers with broadens and deepens knowledge of the truths of
both religious and modern education and accomplish belief. In the Risale-i Nur many descriptions of the
his dream thereof.37 Divine activity in the universe are looked at
through the eyes of science, and reflect Bediuz-
17
zaman’s knowledge of it. The Risale-i Nur shows References and Endnotes
that there is no contradiction or conflict between
religion and science.45 1
Paul E. Walker, “Knowledge and Learning,” in Encyclo-
paedia of the Qur’ān, vol. 3 (ed.) Jane Dammen
To sum up, Said Nursi’s weltanschauung and polemics McAuliffe (Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, 2003), 100.
displays that he was very much keen and interested in 2
Walker, Knowledge and Learning, 100-101.
salvaging a sense of cooperation and integration be- 3
Sayyid Muhammad Yunus Gilani, Knowledge: An Islamic
tween religion and science. It must also be borne in the Weapon (Srinagar: Institute of Islamic Thought, 2002), 5.
4
mind that in the later part of his life (Old Said), he It means to seek knowledge and this term is used common-
never supported modern science unconditionally and ly for those who are heavily engaged in seeking the reli-
unequivocally, rather necessitated that for the sprout- gious knowledge.
5
ing of a real spiritual development, in addition to em- Gilani, Knowledge: An Islamic Weapon, xxi.
6
As quoted in Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, The Flashes, tr.
bracing modern science, sticking to the religious prin-
Şükran Vahide (Istanbul: Sözler Neşriyat A.Ş., 2009),
ciples is inevitable. To be at variance with the teach- 200. It is also available online at www.sozler.com.tr
ings of Islam on one side and think of prevailing on the 7
Hasan Hörkürc, Said Nursi’s Ideal for Human Society:
other side is to live in a fool’s paradise. History is the Moral and Social Reform in the Risale-i Nur (PhD Thesis,
testimony to the fact that the Muslims progressed, ad- University of Durham, 2004), 336.
vanced and reached the zenith of their glory as long as 8
Hörkürc, Said Nursi’s Ideal for Human Society, 88.
9
they stuck to the teachings of Islam. Its reverse hap- Retrieved from http://i-
pened not because the Muslims lacked the resources epistemology.net/attachments/505_iokn%20-
(intellectual or natural) but solely because we pulled %20Chp%201%20-
off ourselves from the teachings of Islam. %20The%20Meaning%20and%20Sources%20of%20Kno
wledge%20in%20Islam.pdf (accessed on 27 March 2014)
Conclusion 10
Anis Ahmad, “Islamization of Knowledge: A Futurist Per-
The onslaught of Western Civilization has not only spective in Islam and Knowledge” Islam and Knowledge:
created conflicts and tensions especially among the Al Faruqi’s Concept of Religion in Islamic Thought, (ed.)
Muslims, but has also resulted in unbalancing the hu- Imtiyaz Yusuf (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2012), 112.
man behavioral and thinking patterns. Europe’s subju- 11
Muhammad al-Ghazzalī, Ihyā al-‘Ulūm al-Dīn, vol. 1, tr.
gation of the Muslim lands cemented the way for im- Fazlul Karim (Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 1982), 109.
bibing of the ‘alien thinking’ by the Muslim masses, 12
A. L Tibawi, Islamic Education: Its Traditions and Mod-
thus paving the way to ‘religion-science controversy.’ ernization into the Arab National Systems (London: Luzac
Such a process ultimately led to the division of the & Company Ltd. 1972), 42.
knowledge into religious and modern on the one side
13
Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, The Rays, tr. Şükran Vahide
(Istanbul: Sözler Publications A. S., 2007), 619.
and condensed the probabilities―if not fully but to a 14
Al-Qur’an, 02:23; In this paper while rendering the ayāt
great extent―of bridging the gap between the two on into English I have used Taqi-ud-Din Al-Hilālī and Mu-
the other. It was primarily this factor which forced hammad Muhsin Khan’s Interpretation of the Meanings of
Muslim intellectuals and reformers to make zealous The Noble Qur’ān (Riyadh: Maktaba Dar-us-Salam,
endeavors so as to hook up the two systems. 1996).
15
In the same vein, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi pioneered Al-Qur’an, 10:06.
16
the movement both practically as well as intellectually Ibid.,02: 164.
17
so as to integrate and reconcile the religious and mod- Ibid., 16: 78.
ern sciences, and thereafter establish a unitary educa-
18
Imām Bukhāri, Sahih Bukhāri, vol.1, tr. Muhammad Mu-
tion system through the revitalization of knowledge. hsin Khan (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam, 1997), 103.
19
Ahmad N. Amir, Abdi O. Shuriye, and Ahmad F. Ismail,
His practical approach coupled with the writings on “The Foundation Of Science And Technology In View Of
this issue was closely associated and connected with Muhammad Abduh,” Asian Journal of Natural and Ap-
what he himself witnessed in the world in general and plied Sciences, vol.1, no. 2,( 2012): 143-155, 143.
in Muslim countries in particular. The main objective 20
M. Raziuddin Siddiqui, “The Concept of Knowledge in
of his what we call ‘inventiveness’ was to produce Islam and the Principles of Mathematical Sciences,” in IS-
such a generation of Muslims who would be totally LAM: Source and Purpose of Knowledge, (Herndon, In-
sincere, devoted, and committed to the advancement of ternational Institute of Islamic Thought, 1988), 193.
21
the Islam and Muslims. To sum up, Bediuzzaman Said As quoted in N. Amir, et al, THE FOUNDATION OF
Nursi without any doubt deserves all the credit, appre- SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 145.
22
ciation, and admiration for revitalizing and reconciling N. Amir, et al, THE FOUNDATION OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY, 146.
these two apparent
18
23
N. Amir, et al, THE FOUNDATION OF SCIENCE AND Selected Bibliography
TECHNOLOGY, 146-47. Agwan, Abdul Rashid. ed., Contemporary Medical Issues in
24
Abdul Rashid Agwan, “Introduction” in Contemporary Islamic Jurisprudence. New Delhi: IFA Publications, 2006.
Medical Issues In Islamic Jurisprudence, ed. Abdul Ra- Ahmad N. Amir. et al. “The Foundation of Science and Tech-
shid Agwan (New Delhi: IFA Publications, 2006), 11. nology in View of Muhammad Abduh.” Asian Journal of Natu-
25 ral & Applied Sciences. vol. 1, no. 2, (2012): 143-155.
N. Amir, et al, THE FOUNDATION OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY, 147. Al-Ghazzalī, Muhammad. Ihyā al-‘Ulūm al-Dīn. tr. Fazlul Ka-
26
Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi, Western Civilisation Islam and rim, Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 1982.
the Muslims tr. Mohammad Asif Kidwai (Lucknow: Al-Hilālī, Taqi-ud-Din et al. Interpretation of the Meanings of
Academy of Islamic Research and Publications, 1979), 9. The Noble Qur’ān. Riyadh: Maktaba Dar-us-Salam, 1996.
27
Ali Nadwi, Western Civilisation, 10-11. Bukhāri̇̄, Imām. Sahih Bukhāri̇̄. tr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan,
28
B. Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London: Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam, 1997.
Gilani, Sayyid Muhammad Yunus. Knowledge: An Islamic
Oxford University Press, 1961), 21-26.
Weapon. Srinagar: Institute of Islamic Thought, 2002.
29
Isra Yazicioglu, “Perhaps Their Harmony is not that Sim-
Hörkürc, Hasan. Said Nursi's Ideal for Human Society: Moral
ple: Bediuzzaman Said Nursi on the Qur’an and Modern and Social Reform in the Risale-i Nur. PhD Thesis, University
Science,” Theology and Science, vol. 11, no. 4, 2013, 339- of Durham, 2004.
355, 342. Jameelah, Maryam. Islam in Theory and Practice. Delhi: Taj
30
Retrieved from Company, 1997.
http://www.bediuzzamansaidnursi.org/en/icerik/integratio Kurter, Havva. (ed.), Islamic Unity. Nur Institute of America
n-knowledge-theory-and-practice-contribution- Publication, 2008.
bediuzzaman-said-nursi (accessed on 30 March 2014) Lewis, B. The Emergence of Modern Turkey. London: Oxford
31
As quoted in N. Amir, et al, The Foundation of Science University Press, 1961.
And Technology, 151. Markham, Ian. An Introduction to Said Nursi: Life, Thought
32
Yazicioglu, “Perhaps Their Harmony is not that Simple,” and Writings. USA: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2011.
342. McAuliffe, Jane Dammen. ed., Encyclopedia of the Qur’ān.
33
Ibid. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, 2003.
34
Ibid. Nadwi, Abul Hasan Ali. Western Civilisation Islam and the
35
Retrieved from Muslims. tr. Mohammad Asif Kidwai, Lucknow: Academy of
http://www.bediuzzamansaidnursi.org/en/icerik/bediuzza Islamic Research and Publications, 1979.
man%E2%80%99s-vision-education-and-his- Nursi, Said. The Islamic Unity. Istanbul, Ittihad Strategic Re-
search Board, 1999.
%E2%80%9Cmadrasat-uz-zahra%E2%80%9D-project
Rippin, Andrew. The Islamic World. London: Routledge, 2008.
(accessed on 30 March 2014)
Said Nursi, Bediuzzaman. The Damascus Sermon. tr. Şükran
36
Said Nursi intended to model Madresatü’z Zehrā to that of
Vahide, New Delhi: Sözler Publications, 2010.
Al-Azhar University of Cairo. Although its foundation was Said Nursi, Bediuzzaman. The Flashes. tr. Şükran Vahide, Is-
laid in 1913, but because of the circumstances the dream tanbul: Sözler Neşriyat A.Ş., 2009.
was not realized because of circumstances. Said Nursi, Bediuzzaman. The Rays. tr. Şükran Vahide, Istan-
37
Said Nursi, The Rays, 678. bul: Sözler Publications A. S., 2007.
38
Hörkürc, Said Nursi’s Ideal for Human Society, 342. Said Nursi, Bediuzzaman. The Words. tr. Şükran Vahide, Istan-
39
Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, The Damascus Sermon, tr. bul: Sözler Publications A. S., 2008.
Şükran Vahide (New Delhi: Sözler Publications, 2010), Tibawi, A. L. Islamic Education: Its Traditions and Moderniza-
32. tion into the Arab National Systems. London: Luzac & Compa-
40
Said Nursi, The Damascus Sermon, 09. ny Ltd. 1972.
41 Vahide, Sukran. Islam in Modern Turkey: An Intellectual Biog-
Said Nursi, The Damascus Sermon, 71.
42 raphy of Bediüzzaman Said Nursi. New York: SUNY Press,
Retrieved from
http://www.bediuzzamansaidnursi.org/en/icerik/nursi%E2 2005.
%80%99s-ideas-science-development-muslim-countries Yazicioglu, Isra. “Perhaps Their Harmony is not that Simple:
(accessed on 31 March 2014) Bediuzzaman Said Nursi on the Qur’an and Modern Sci-
43
As quoted in Hörkürc, Said Nursi’s Ideal for Human Soci- ence.Theology and Science, vol. 11, no. 4, (2013): 339-355.
ety, 327. Yusuf, Imtiyaz. ed., Islam and Knowledge: Al Faruqi’s Concept
44 of Religion in Islamic Thought. New York: I. B. Tauris, 2012.
Sukran Vahide, Islam in Modern Turkey: An Intellectual
Biography of Bediüzzaman Said Nursi (New York: SUNY
Press, 2005), 45-55.
45
Retrieved from
http://erisale.com/index.jsp?locale=en#content.en.204.681
(accessed on 31 March 2014).
19
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20
Islamic Economic Thought in the Medieval Times: Some Reflections

Nasir Nabi
Abstract
In early Islamic economics, five different dimensions of analysis are broadly identified. First, economic is-
sues have been discussed by Mufassirin in the light of the Holy Quran. For instance, discussions on the
prohibition of usury and the encouragement of economic activities for human welfare. Second; economic
issues have been discussed in the light of Fiqh. For example the legal aspects of Mudharibah and Mushari-
kah have been dealt within this discipline in great detail. Third; economic matters have been discussed by
Muslims in the light of ethical system of Islam for moral development. The works of Ulama, Sufis, Muslim
philosophers and reformers come under this category. Fourthly, some good pieces of works, related to
economics have been written by some great scholars of Islam in response to the needs of their times while
holding important government offices. The works related to public finance, public revenues, land tax, pub-
lic expenditure fall under this category. The book Kitab al Kharaj by Imam Abu Yusuf is one such example.
Finally some Islamic Scholars and philosophers have provided objective analysis in the field of economics.
The analysis made by Imam Ghazzali, Ibn Taimiyah, Ibn Khaldun and lately by Shah Waliullah Dehlwi fall
under this category.
Keywords: Islamic Economic Thought, Abu Yusuf, Abu Ubayd, Al Ghazzali, Ibn Taimiyyah,
Ibn Khaldun Shah Waliullah
Introduction arose to carry an earnest research to find the solutions

of these problems in the light of the Quran and the
The economic activities practiced in the early Islamic
Hadith and so was evolved al-Fiqh. The Fiqh did not
period had a clear basis in the overall ethical and social
remain confined to ablution, fasting, Hajj and Zakat
philosophy of Islam. It was based on the guidance of
but also encompassed other aspects of society includ-
Islamic Shariah with the aim of promoting public in-
ing economics. This state of affairs continued during
terests. The general principles were derived from the
the period of Khulafa al-Rashidin and Umayyads till
verses of the Holy Quran and the necessary details and
the advent of Abbasids, when economic matters were
guiding principles were provided by the Prophet
given due importance and were attended with great
(SAW). The economic system at the time of the Prophet
care. It was in this period that many books on econom-
(SAW) was not very complex. The Prophet (SAW )
ic matters particularly on financial policy of Islam
lived in the tiny state of Madinah and his economic
were written.
policies were simple. After his demise (d.632 C.E.) the
Islamic state crossed the boundaries of Arabian Penin- The Quran and Hadith being the divine sources have
sula, especially during the reign of Caliph Umar (d. been taken into consideration by Muslim thinkers
644 C.E.), this made imperative the need for an orga- while discussing the economic matters throughout Is-
nized system which could effectively tackle the new lamic history.
economic challenges. Thus, in the light of the verses of
Economic Teachings of the Holy Quran
the Holy Quran and Sunnah of the Prophet (SAW), var-
ious rules were adopted after mutual consultation The Holy Quran provides a series of values, guidelines
(Shura) and consensus (Ijma) of the companions of the and rules which serve as the basis for developing an
Prophet (SAW). The main thrust of the consensus was appropriate economic system. Many positive values
that policies adopted must be based on the basic prin- discussed in the Quran include justice, honesty, moder-
ciples of Shariah and guided for the public interest. ation and kindness to the disadvantaged whereas injus-
Thus two more sources on Islamic economics were tice, greed, extravagance, miserliness and hoarding are
developed besides the Holy Quran and the Sunnah of termed as negative values. The Holy Quran permits
the Prophet (SAW). These were consensus of opinion trade and identifies some prohibited economic practic-
and analogical reasoning of experts in Islamic law for es such as usury, misappropriation and gambling.
the public interest. Afterwards, society expanded and There are more than two hundred verses in the Quran
gradually became more complex, newer and newer which in one way or another concern economics; in-
problems of personal, social, political economic and cluding Zakat, permissible and prohibited goods,
international nature raised their heads. The need then wealth, ownership of property, trade, credit and debt,
21
fraud, associations and contracts, etc. There are five sume a portion of other men’s goods and that
areas of economic behavior which are prominently knowingly.”11
mentioned in the Quran. These include Justice and so- b. “If one of you deposits a thing on trust with anoth-
cial responsibility, acquisition of wealth, distribution of er let him who is trusted (faithfully) delivers his
wealth, the protection of the disadvantaged and regula- trust, and let him fear God, his Lord.”12
tion of transactions through contracts. c. He who misappropriates (the public money) will
The Holy Quran lays much emphasis upon maintaining come on the Day of Judgment with what he has
justice in society. Justice (Adl) is to be upheld in all misappropriated; then shall everyone be given in
aspects of life including the economic one.1 Those who full, what he earned.”13
pursue economic affairs are exhorted to act fairly, d. “The thief, male or female, cut off his or her
truthfully, honestly and in a spirit of co-operation. hands.” 14
They are being emphasized to provide a fair descrip- e. “Those who devour the property of orphans unjust-
tion of the goods involved in transaction and ensure ly, devour fire in their bellies, and will soon endure
that proper standard of measure are used. 2 Those a blazing fire.”15
who commit acts of injustice are required to repent3. f. “Woe to the defrauders who, when take the meas-
ure from men, exact full measure, but when they
They are being warned that their punishment in
measure or weigh for them, give less than is
the life hereafter will be severe4 and they will have to
due.”16
suffer even in this world.5 Many of the prohibited acts
g. “Those who love that indecent thing should spread
in commerce and finance are described as unjust such among the believers, for them is a painful chas-
as dishonesty, cheating, fraud, misrepresentation of tisement, in the life of this world and the hereaf-
things and theft.6 ter.” 17
Muslim society is held responsible for maintaining h. “Force not your slave-girls to prostitution that you
economic justice both at individual and collective lev- may enjoy (some) gain of the present life, if they
els. This responsibility functions through the institution desire to live in chastity.”18 And approach not for-
of “Enjoining what is right and forbidding what is nication, surely it is shameful deed and an evil
wrong.” (Al-amr bi-al maruf wa nahi an-al munkar) way.” 19 “The adulterer and the adulteress, flog
and is regarded by the Holy Quran as essential to social each of them with a hundred stripes.”20
cohesion.7 i. “O ye believers, wine and gambling and idols and
The Holy Quran highly encourages economic activities divining arrows are an abomination-of Satan’s
and directs Muslims to enjoy fully the bounties of Al- handiwork; so avoid them that you may prosper.”21
lah. 8 The Holy Quran emphasizes repeatedly that all j. “God has permitted trade and forbidden usury.” 22
things in the universe belong to Allah. It is He who “O ye believers fear God and give up what remains
created them and allowed man to exploit them and (due to you) of usury if you are believers (indeed).
placed them at his disposal. 9 However, men should If you do not so, take notice of war from God and
distinguish between things lawful and unlawful. The His Messenger. But if you repent you shall have
Holy Quran ordains that wealth should be acquired by your principal. Neither you wrong, nor shall you be
lawful means only and that unlawful ways and means wronged. If the debtor is in straitened circum-
should be discarded altogether: “O you who believe, stance, give him time till it is easy (for him to pay),
take not your wealth among yourselves in wrongful and that you remit (the debt) by way of charity,
ways, but let there be trade among you by mutual that is the best thing for you, if you only knew.”23
agreement…”10 Thus, the Holy Qur’an prohibits the following ways of
These “wrongful ways” have been dealt at length by acquiring wealth: taking one’s property without con-
the Holy Prophet (SAW) and the great jurists of Islam sent, bribes, forcible acquisitions, fraud, taking or giv-
have elucidated them in the books of law. Some of ing wrong measure, business which spreads indecency,
them, however, have been described in the Holy Quran prostitution, manufacturing, buying, selling and car-
as under: riage of wines, gambling, manufacturing, buying and
a. “And do not eat one another’s property among selling of idols, and business like astrology, foretelling
yourselves in wrongful ways, nor seek by it to gain of faith, divination and usury.
the nearness of the judges that may sinfully con- The Holy Quran lays down a broader expenditure poli-
cy for fair distribution of wealth among the various
22
sections of society. The main objective of the Qur’anic In another Hadith, Prophet (SAW) has remarked that
principle of distribution is to avoid the concentration of the defects of goods should be clearly revealed.
wealth in a few hands.24 The Holy Quran repeatedly Uqba bin Amir reports, I heard the Messenger of Allah
commands the faithful to give to the poor and needy,25 saying, “Muslims are brothers to each other. It is not
to one’s parents and relatives.26 Further, it states that lawful for a Muslim to sell something (to his brother)
the reward for such a deed is great.27 It links this giv- which contains some defects except what he reveals to
ing to belief and warns of severe punishment for those him”.37
who do not act generously. 28 Distribution of wealth
and prohibition of the concentration are further rein- In fact Prophet (SAW) remarked that one who does not
forced by the laws of inheritance that the Holy Quran wish for his brother as he wishes for his own self is not
a true believer.
explains.29 Therefore, the Holy Quran wishes that the
wealth should always remain in circulation. The Quran It is narrated on the authority of Anas bin Malik that
criticizes stinginess and miserliness 30 while modera- the Prophet (SAW) observed, “No one amongst you
tion is encouraged, 31 hoarding of wealth is strongly believes (truly) till one likes for his brother or for his
prohibited and those who disobey are warned of hell neighbor what he loves for himself”.38
fire.32 Similarly, squandering property is also prohibit- Islam guarantees the right to ownership of private
ed; in fact society must prevent individuals from wast- property and the Holy Prophet (SAW) has ordained
ing their wealth.33 Likewise, extravagance is linked to Muslims to safeguard their property. He has also made
corruption34 with severe punishment to follow.35 In the a distinction between private and public property.
same vein individuals should not spend on prohibited
Abu Huraira reports that a person came to the Messen-
goods or acts such as illicit sex, alcohol or anything
ger of Allah and said. “Messenger of Allah, what do
that leads to the corruption of society or injury to oth-
you think of a man who comes to me in order to grab
ers.
my possession?” He said: “Don’t surrender your pos-
Economic Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) session to him. He (the inquirer) said: if he fights with
There are numerous Ahadith, of Prophet Muhammad me?”He (the Prophet) remarked; then, fight (with
(SAW) which deal with various aspects of economics. him)”. He (the inquirer) again said: “what do you think
Some of the chief economic issues discussed in hadith if I am killed? “ He (the Prophet) observed: “you will
include ownership of property, earning one’s liveli- be a martyr.” He (the inquirer) said.” Messenger of
hood, development of land, wages, profit, capital, con- Allah, what do you think of him, (if) I kill him”. He
sumer behavior, market mechanisms, partnerships and (the Holy Prophet) said, “He would be in the fire.”39
business transactions. Most of these ahadith are the In another hadith, Abdullah bin Amir says that the Ho-
explanation of the Qur’anic verses related to econom- ly Prophet (SAW) said, “He who dies in protecting his
ics. Both the Quran and the ahadith provide necessary property is a martyr.”40
guidelines and rules which can help in developing an To prevent cheating, injustice, dishonesty and exploita-
economic system based upon equity and justice. tion, the Holy Prophet (SAW) has forbidden certain
The Prophet (SAW) actively participated in supervising unethical trade practices, these practices were prevail-
economic activities in society. He would often visit ing in jahiliya Arabia.
market places in order to find out the real nature of Abu Huraira reports that Allah’s Messenger has for-
transactions occurring there. He would advise his com- bidden (two types of Transactions) Mulamasa and
panions to be fair while making any business deal. Munabatha. 41
It is narrated on the authority of Abu Huraira that the Abu Huraira also reports that Allah’s Messenger
Messenger of Allah (SAW) happened to pass by a heap (SAW) has forbidden a transaction determined by
of edibles (corn). He thrust his hand (in that heap) and throwing stones 42 and the type which involves some
his fingers were moistened. He said to the owner of uncertainty (Bay al Gharar). 43
that heap of eatables (corn). “What is this”, He replied,
“Messenger of Allah, these have been drenched by Abdullah Ibn Umar narrates that, Allah’s Messenger
rainfall.” He (the Prophet) remarked, “why did you not (SAW) forbade the sale called Habalil-Habala which
place this (the drenched part of the heap) over the eata- was a kind of sale practiced in the Jahiliyah period, in
bles so that the people could see it? He who deceives is which one would pay the price of a she camel which
not of me (is not my follower).36 was not born yet, but was likely to take birth.44
23
The Qur’anic teachings on economic matters are spe- ing other socio-economic challenges. Works on taxa-
cific and few in number. The Holy Qur’an mostly gave tion in Islam (Kitab al-Kharaj) and public finance
principles and stressed on the use of mind and applica- (Kitab al-Amwal) first appeared in 2nd/8th century and
tion of reasoning. This led to the appearance of a chain within the next few centuries more than two dozen
of scholars who derived rules to solve new problems treatises were written. The works that could survive
and created a juristic logic (usul al fiqh) applicable to a include those of Abu Yusuf, al-Qurashi, Abu Ubayd,
wide variety of social patterns. Their methodology was Ibn Zanjawayh, al-Dawudi, Ibn Rajab, and portions of
to refer first to the Holy Qur’an, and practices of the Qudamah b. Ja`far, and al-Makhzumi. In addition to
Prophet (SAW), and precedents of his companions and exclusive works on the subject, issues of public reve-
immediate followers who were trained by him. Not nue and expenditure constituted parts of juristic and
finding anything there, they applied analogy and other political writings.47
inferred rules to deduce the Shariah injunctions for the
new situation. Gradually, a number of schools of Economic Thinking of Eminent Jurists, Sufis and
thought in jurisprudence emerged. They were named Philosophers up to 450 A.H.
after their leading scholars and creative thinkers (Imam In this period, economic issues were discussed by
or Mujtahid), most famous among them are (in chrono- Fuqaha followed by sufis and philosophers. Since the
logical order) Zayd bin Ali, Abu Hanifa, Malik, focus of fiqh is what is required by Shari’ah, therefore,
Shafi`i, Ahmad bin Hanbal, etc. These schools of juris- the Fuqaha have discussed economic issues in the light
prudence were firmly established within a period of of that context only. They have focused upon the prin-
less than 300 years after the passing away of the ciples of permissions (Halal) and prohibitions (Haram)
Prophet (SAW). An important reason why masses had rather than providing descriptions and explanations of
faith in them and followed their path is that they were economic events in life. Some of the chief economic
experts of the basic sources of Islam and free from any issues discussed in this period include; Mudaraba,
alien influence. Reflection on economic issues was Musharika, Muzariah, Mulamatha, Munabatha, Bay
only one aspect of their pronouncement of rulings over al-Gharar, etc.
a host of complex problems of life. People addressed
them to seek their guidance in their everyday life. If it Some of the important jurists of this period are Zaid b.
involved an economic aspect, their analysis used to be Ali (d.120/738), Abu Hanifa (d.150/767) Awzai
economic analysis. There is no doubt that Islamic eco- (d.157/774), Imam Malik (d.179/798), Abu Yusuf
nomic analysis owes a great deal to legal inquiry of (d.198/798), Muhammad bin Hassan al Shaybani
this age. 45 (d.189/804),Yahya bin Adam (d.203/818), Shafi’ee
(d.204/820), Abu Ubayd (d.224/838), Ahmad bin Han-
Writings on economic topics and collection of the bal (d.241/855), Yahya bin Umar(d.289/902), Qudama
Prophet’s traditions on financial matters started by the bin Ja’far (d.337/948), Abu Ja’far al Dawudi
end of this phase and in the early period of the next (d.402/1012), Mawardi (d.450/1058), Ibn Hazm
phase by the students of the leading jurists (Imams) and (d.456/1064), Abu Yala (d.458/1066) and al-Imam al-
their contemporaries. But due to the nature of their Haramain al Juwayni (d.478/1085).
works, they are apt to be considered part of this phase.
For example, Abu Yusuf and Muhammad al Shaybani The sufis have talked about economic life in terms of
authored Kitab al-Kharaj and Kitab al-Kasb respec- zuhd (asceticism). They have given less importance to
tively. Yahya b. Adam al-Qurashi compiled traditions the material world and have focused upon unselfish
of the Prophet related to taxes and other financial obli- service to Allah’s creatures. Some of the important
gations, while Abu Ubayd al-Qasim bin Sallam and sufis of this time include Hassan al-Basri (d.110/728),
later his student, Ibn-Zanjawayh, authored Kitab al- Ibrahim bin Adham (d.161/874), Fudzyl bin Ayad
Amwal. Ibn Abi al-Dunya wrote on Islah al-mal and (d.187/802), Maruf Karkhi (d.200/815) and Dhunun
Abu Bakr al-Khallal on business and economic activi- Misri (d.245/859).
ties in general.46
Among the philosophers, mention may be made of Ibn
Muslim economic thinking is distinguished from early
Miskawiyh (d.421/1030), al-Kindi (d.260/873), al-
economic thought by paying increasing attention to
Farabi (d.339/950) and Ibn Sina (d.428/1037).
public finance and exclusive writings on the subject.
This was but natural in the wake of expanding territory a. Imam Abu Yusuf (113-182 A.H./731-798 C.E.)
of the Islamic state, availability of new sources of in-
An emphasis on the economic responsibility of the rul-
come, confronting new heads of expenditure and fac-
ers has been a recurrent theme of Islamic economic
24
thought since the early times of Islam. This happens to Abu Yusuf has a detailed discussion on the growth and
be the focal point of Imam Abu Yusuf who served as development of the economy. He suggested various
the Chief Justice under the Abbasid Caliph Harun al policy measures to be adopted by the state in order to
Rashid.48 His book titled Kitab al Kharaj49 is written in increase the productivity of the land. According to him
response to the caliph’s queries on the state of religious it is an obligation upon the ruler to arrange for the
percepts dealing with taxation problems, revenue ad- cleaning of ancient canals and excavation of new ones.
ministration and public expenditure. He writes, “The He should also construct dams in order to increase the
commander of the faithful (Amir al Muminin) asked productivity of the land and income of the state. He
me to prepare for him a comprehensive book to be clearly states, “The expenses of the upkeep of the walls
used for the purpose of the collection of legal taxes, a on the river banks to prevent floods and expenses of
book for him to study and act upon designed to overt the dams and of the water locks must be borne by the
oppression on his subjects and serve their interests”.50 state treasury and that they should be kept in order, as
any malfunction will cause damage to agriculture and
While writing on the subject of revenue collection, decrease the income from taxation.” 54
Abu Yusuf prefers the state to take a proportional share
on agricultural produce from the cultivators rather than Abu Yusuf provides a detailed discussion on the rec-
levy a fixed rent on agricultural land. This was more lamation of dead and unclaimed land. About the own-
just and likely to yield larger revenue by facilitating ership rights of these lands, he holds that he who re-
the expansion of the area under cultivation. Advocating vives a dead land acquires the right of ownership to it
the need for adopting the proportional method, he and may continue to cultivate it or let it for cultivation,
writes, “In my view the best system of taxation for dig canals in it or otherwise, develop it for his benefit.
generating more revenue for the treasury and the most He will have to pay ushr levy if the land is from ushr
adequate one to prevent injustice to the tax payers by category and kharaj levy for kharaj land.55 He highly
tax collectors is the proportional agricultural tax. This emphasizes upon the cultivation of these lands and cat-
system will alleviate injustice to the tax payers and egorically recommends that these unused lands must
benefit the treasury.”51 He also put emphasis upon the not be kept idle. He holds, “These resources (un
ruler to adopt such policies that could secure the well owned/waste lands) are like wealth which does not be-
being of the people and increase the general prosperity long to anyone. A just ruler should grant them to
and welfare of his subjects. He observes that the work someone who promotes the interests of Islam and
for general utility should be provided publically and spends the wealth for a good purpose.”56
free of any direct charge. He holds that all expenses
b. Abu Ubayd (d.838 C.E.)
occurring on the provision of public works such as
construction of walls, bunds on the river banks to pre- Abu Ubaid’s Kitab al Amwal is a comprehensive work
vent floods and other developmental projects should be on public finance in Islam.57 This book is not only a
borne by the state. For the provision of better irrigation treatise on fiscal system of Islam but it is also a treas-
facilities to agriculture, his suggestion to the ruler runs ure of information concerning laws, history, geogra-
thus. “If these projects are likely to result in improve- phy, administration and jurisprudence. The book con-
ment and increase in Kharaj, you should order digging tains ninety three chapters in total. It is a good source
of these canals, all expenses are to be met out of the of authentic traditions from the Holy Prophet (SAW)
public treasury. Do not charge the expanses from the and the reports from his companions, and those who
people of the area because it is better that they should followed them, on economic matters.
be developed rather than ruined. Every request from
the kharaj paying people for repairs etc involving im- While dealing with any issue, Abu Ubayd usually re-
provements and betterment in their lands and canals fers to the verses of the Holy Quran, narrates Tradi-
should be granted as it does not harm others”.52 How- tions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) and practices of the
ever, if the project is for the benefit of a particular pious caliphs and examines their various interpreta-
group, in such a case the cost will be properly charged. tions, putting out their strength or weakness, then gives
In regard to the cleaning works on privately owned his own opinion. While expressing an opinion, he gives
canals, he recommends, “the whole canal is to be reasons for preferring one opinion over the other.
cleared first and expenses should be charged from Overall the entire book can broadly be divided into two
those who own it, in proportion to their shares in the major parts,
canal.”53 Part first starting from item number 1 to 895 deals with
revenue that is imposed upon and received from non
25
Muslim citizens of the Islamic state, that is 1/5th of the sights of Abu Hamid al Ghazaali, Taqiuddin Abul Ab-
spoils of Jizya, Kharaj and different forms of Fay. It bas Ahmad Ibn Taimyah and Ibn Khaldun.
also discusses the related problems. Part second; (para-
a. Al-Ghazzali (451-505 A.H. /1055-1111C.E.)
graph number 895 to 1988) undertakes Zakat, (the
compulsory religious obligation upon the rich Muslims Economic thinking of the author of Ihya-al-ulum al
for their poor and needy brethren) and its different din,58 Abu Hamid al- Ghazzali,59 is an integral part of
forms. his vision of a rejuvenating Islamic life. In his book
The second phase (450-850 A.H. /1058-1446 C.E.) Ihya al Ulum al din, he devotes a separate chapter for
economic teachings of Islam under the title, “Earnings
In the second phase of the development of economic and trade and commerce.” 60 Some of the important
thought in Islam, Muslims started with the rich intel- economic issues that he discusses in this book include
lectual heritage left by their predecessors besides being buying and selling, advance payment money, lawful
directly influenced by the Quran and the Sunnah. At and unlawful ways of earnings, economic justice, eco-
the same time, they faced a political reality character- nomic behaviour and relation between economics and
ized by the disintegration of the central Abbasid rule religion. According to Ghazzali, four things are neces-
and the division of the Islamic realm into regional sary in earnings; earning through lawful means, justice,
powers largely based on force rather than people’s kindness and fear of religion. 61 While discussing the
consent. There was high level of corruption which was principles of buying and selling, Ghazzali observes that
followed by moral disintegration. With the decaying no transaction is valid with a minor, insane, slave or a
moral fabric of the society, the gap between the rich blind man. 62 However, transaction with the slave be-
and the poor was also on an increase. Muslim rulers comes lawful with the permission of his master. Simi-
were less serious in terms of their economic responsi- larly, transaction with the blind man is lawful with the
bilities towards their subjects. Therefore, they were consent of his representative. It is also lawful to have
often reminded of their duties towards their subjects by transaction with unbelievers but it is unlawful to sell
the Muslim scholars. This age is also characterized by arms to them.63
the prosperity of the people with brisk trade practices
between the people. People in this age were paying While analyzing the characteristic features of commod-
huge taxes and levies to the government with little curb ities for sale, Ghazzali observes that the things for sale
on economic enterprise. must be fit for transfer and must be known, fixed and
certain. The contract for buying and selling must be
This age, also witnessed a good number of jurists, sufis
expressed in clear and unambiguous terms. Intention
and philosophers. Some of the noteworthy jurists of
plays an important part in it and no condition can law-
this period include; Shamsuddun al Sarakshi
fully be imposed by one party after the agreement is
(d.483/1090), Nizamul Mulk Tusi (d.485/1093), Imam
final.64
Ghazzali (d.505/1111), Ibn Mas’ud al Kasani
(d.578/1182), Shirazi ,(d.589/1193), Fakhruddin alRazi Ghazzali also discusses advance payment of money
(d.606/1210), Najmuddi (d.654/1256), IbnTaimiyah and things. He observes that the conditions necessary
(728/1328), IbnUkhuwa (d.729/1329), Ibn al Qayyam in it are as follows.
(d.751/1350), Muhammad bin Abdur Rahman al Ha-
1. The quantity and the kind of thing for which ad-
bashi (d.782/1300), Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi (d.790/1388),
vance payment is made should be fixed.
Ibn Khaldun (d.808/1404) al Maqrizi (d.845/1441).
2. The time and place of its delivery should be ascer-
Similarly, some of the great sufis of this time who also tained.
made a deep impact on successive generations of Mus- 3. It should not be a precious or a rare thing like a
lims are al-Qushayri (d.465/857), al-Hujwari precious jewel.
(d.490/1096), Abul Qadir Jilani (d.564/1169), Farid al- 4. It should be an exchangeable commodity.
din Attar (d.622/1252), Ibn Arabi (d.638/1240), Jalalu- 5. Its weight and time of delivery must be fixed.65
din Rumi (d.672/1274). This period is also known for
its towering philosophers like Ibn Baja (d.533/11380), While discussing the prohibition of interest, Ghazzali
Ibn Tufayl (d.581/1185), Ibn Rushd (d.595/1198). states that interests arise only in two cases, in transac-
tions of cash money, gold and silver and of food stuffs.
All these jurists, sufis and philosophers have touched Interest occurs in these two cases under two condi-
the economic issues in one way or the other in accord- tions; first sale is held on credit and not in cash; that is
ance with their times and situations. However, the pre- not to hand in hand transaction and second, more quan-
sent work will only focus upon the few economic in-
26
tity is taken in lieu of the same kind of things. On ac- the ruled). In his Al Hisbah fi al Islam (public duties in
count of this, it is unlawful to sell fixed quantity of Islam), Ibn Taimiyah envisioned a well provisioned
gold or silver for a fixed quantity of more gold or sil- society organized on the basis of freedom of enterprise
ver. There is however, no fault in selling silver in more and private property with limits set by moral consid-
quantity in lieu of gold of less quantity, because they erations and supervisioned by a just ruler enforcing
are different kinds of things and not of the same kind. Shariah and working for the welfare of the people. He
It is also unlawful to receive in cash the value of a cer- describes the characteristic features of the Muhtasib in
tain thing which is to be delivered in future. Similarly the following words, “The Muhtasib not only ordains
it is unlawful to exchange food stuffs of the same kind the Friday congregation and other communal prayers.
in cash or on credit. For instance, a goat cannot be ex- He also exacts truthful reports and the discharge of
changed with mutton nor can wheat be exchanged with truths. He proscribes such abominations as lying and
bread. It is also unlawful to exchange milk with milk deceit, including the giving of small measure and
products.66 Ghazzali highly emphasizes upon mainte- weight and fraudulent practices in history commerce
nance of justice in business transactions. He strongly and religious matters etc.”73
opposes ill economic practices like hoarding and mo-
In the third chapter of the book, he discusses the issue
nopolization of wealth. These practices lead market
of price control in detail. He observes that it is wrong
imperfections and hurt the interests of common people.
to control prices if it involves injury to people and
He cites many ahadith of the holy Prophet (SAW) and
forces them without any justification to sell goods at a
stories of the pious persons in respect of the prohibition
price not agreeable to them. He quotes Anas bin Malik
of hoarding. However, he allows, hoarding of such
(The companion of the Prophet), who narrates, “The
kind of things which are not principle food stuffs for
market price rose in the time of the messenger of God,
livelihood like saffron and medicines. He also allows
on him be peace, and they said to him: Messenger of
hoarding of food stuffs provided their hoarding does
God; if only you would fix the prices! But he replied:
not affect the general public. In this way, Ghazzali has
God is The Taker, The Disposer, The Scourer and The
provided due regard to the interests of the common
Controller of prices. I very much hope that when I
people.67 meet God, no one will claim against me for an injury, I
Ghazzali regards trade and commerce as a trail for behave caused him in blood and property.” 74 Ibn
lievers. He emphasizes that one should do good to oth- Taimiyah however, remarks that if the controlled pric-
ers while pursuing any economic activity. He remarks es involve just dealings between people and prevents
that one should not make much profit in business and them from doing unlawful activities, then it is not
considers it an Ihsan.68 However he is not against mak- merely permissible but indeed obligatory. For instance,
ing much profit. It is better to buy at a higher price when the owners of merchandise refuse to sell except
from a poor person and while purchasing from a rich for more than the reasonable value at a time people are
person one may search for additional profit. He also in urgent need or when certain people have monopoly
regards payment of debt in a good manner as Ihsan.69 of particular commodities and goods are sold only to
It is better to go personally and pay the debt than, to them and retailed by them. In these situations, Ibn
wait till it is demanded. He also remarks that one Taimiyah emphasizes that prices must be controlled, so
should not forget ones religion and hereafter, while one that people will not suffer.75 Another unique contribu-
is in a state of business with others. If he forgets, he tion of Ibn Taimiyah to Islamic economics is his em-
will be ruined and will be one of those who sell their phasis upon partnerships based upon proportional
next world in lieu of this world. His real capital is his shares, for example, one third or one half. To take a
religion and matters relating to the next world.70 fixed amount according to him would not constitute
equity but rather injustice.76 Ibn Taimiyah also vehe-
b. Ibn Taimiyah (661-728 A.H/1263-1328 C.E.) mently condemns improper economic practices that
Taqiuddin Abu al Abbas Ibn Taimiyah was primarily involve cheating, fraud or speculation. He quotes many
an author on hadith, but his contribution to Tafsir and sayings of the Holy Prophet (SAW) against trade prac-
Fiqh are no less significant. He also wrote extensively tices like Mulamasa, Munabatha and Bay al Gharar.
on logic, philosophy, mysticism and comparative reli- Similarly, he also condemns hoarding and other ill
gions. His economic ideas are reflected from his works economic practices that lead market imperfections.77
Al Hisbah fi al Islam 71 (public duties in Islam), Al
c. Ibn Khaldun (732-808/1332-1404 C.E.)
Siyasah al Shariah fi Islah al Ra’i wal Ra’iyah72 (Sha-
riah policies on reforming the affairs of the ruler and Ibn Khaldun78 was a historian and a social analyst. His
27
Muqaddimah79 is one of the greatest works in social, serves that it can cause loss of profit. He writes, “Intel-
political and economic analysis in the Islamic tradition. ligent and experienced people in the cities know that it
Some of the main economic issues that he discusses in is inauspicious to hoard grain and wait for high pric-
this book are division of labour, money and prices, es…the reason may perhaps lie in the fact that people
production and distribution, international trade, capital need food and they are forced to spend money on it.
formation and growth, trade cycles, poverty and pros- For things that are traded other than foodstuffs, people
perity, population, agriculture, industry and trade and have no compelling need…On things not really needed
macro economics of taxation and public expenditure. they spend their money willingly and eagerly and feel
He defines commerce as a means to attempt to make a no attachment to the money they have spent.86
profit by increasing capital, through buying goods at a
Ibn Khaldun has a wide range of discussion on eco-
low price and selling them at a high price.80 He regards nomic growth. He talks about different types of crafts
profit as the value realized from human labor. He and their development. According to him crafts can
writes, “The part of the income that is obtained by a improve and increase only when people demand them.
person through his own effort and strength is called If the demand for a particular craft decreases, the peo-
profit.”81 ple engaged with that craft become disheartened and
According to Ibn Khaldun, prices are determined in the their interest decreases, and if the situation continues,
market by the interplay of both supply and demand. He this results into the disappearance of that craft. In fact
writes, “When goods are few and rare, their prices go development of civilization and the refinement of
up, on the other hand, when the country is near and the crafts are complementary to each other.87
roadsafe for travelling, there will be many people to The Third Phase (850-1350AH/1445-1932 C.E.)
transport goods, thus they (goods) will be found in
large quantities and the prices will go down.”82 He re- As we enter this period, the decline in independent
gards continued low prices as the main cause of busi- thinking had already yielded to stagnation. But there is
ness decline. He writes, “When the prices of any type a fresh stirring during the last two centuries in which a
of goods; food, clothing material or anything else that number of thinkers and reformers called for a return to
may bring in capital remain low and the merchant can- the Quran and Sunnah for inspiration and guidance.
not profit from any fluctuation of the market affecting Notable among these are Shah Waliullah (1114-
these things, his profit stops, if the situation continues 1176A.H. /1703-1762C.E.), Muhammad bin Abdul
for a long period. Business in this particular line Wahab (d.1206A.H. /1787C.E.), Jamaluddin Afghani
slumps, no trading is done and the merchants lose their (d.1294A.H. /1897C.E.), Muhammad Abduh
capital.”83 (d.1320A.H./1905 C.E.), Iqbal (d.1356A.H.
/1938C.E.).
Ibn Khaldun observes that the division of labour plays
a very important role for growth and development. He The jurists in this period were generally speaking con-
observes that civilization and its wellbeing as well as tent with writing footnotes on the works of their emi-
its business propensity depend upon productivity and nent predecessors and issuing fatwa in the light of
propelling efforts of people in all directions according standard rules of their respective schools. Although the
to their own interest and profit. The way in which the gates of Ijtihad had long been closed, there are numer-
productive powers of people can be utilized is through ous insights to be found in the works of jurists like Ibn
cooperation. He notes that production of staple diet like Nujaym (d. 970/1562) and Ibn Abedin (d.1252/1836).
wheat requires six to ten different kinds of services. By Similarly, this period also witnessed the works of emi-
coming together to supply all these services, men are nent sufis like Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1034/1624)
able to produce a quantity many times more than the and a host of other writers. Among all the above men-
quantity needed for their consumption. 84 In this way tioned scholars Shah Wali-ullah Dehlvi has significant-
the surplus can be exchanged by the goods produced ly contributed in the field of Islamic Economics.
by others, thus leading to prosperity. He notes that the
Shah Waliullah (1114-1176 AH-1703-1762 C.E.)
countries which have a surplus to trade with other
countries are more prosperous than the countries that Economic ideas of Shah Waliullah88 are found in dif-
have little to offer for international trade. He observes ferent works by him such as Hujjat Allah al-Balighah,
that more profit can be secured by withholding goods al-Budar al-Bazigah, al-Tafhimat al-Illahiyah and his
till the market prices are again high and by foreign numerous letters that he addressed to different rulers,
trade. 85 He strongly discourages hoarding. He ob- notables and friends.
28
Starting from simple primitive village life to an inter- Division of labour and specialization lead to the need
national community, Shah Waliullah divides human for exchange which can be done easily through an ob-
society into four stages. These stages he calls the stag- ject that can be used as medium. This leads to the in-
es of irtifaqat. All his economic ideas are related to vention of money. Thus, it is the second stage of socio-
some way or the other to his concept of Irtifaqat or economic development in which the use of money ap-
stages of socio-economic development. pears. According to Shah Waliullah, money should be
a durable object and commonly accepted by people in
a. Al-Irtifaq al Awwal (The First Stage of Socio-
Economic Development) their transactions.94 He mentions that of Gold and of
Silver are most suitable to be used as money. They are
In the Irtifaq al Awwal, man becomes acquainted with easily divisible into small pieces, their units have simi-
food stuff suited to his physical constitution and learns larity, are of great benefit to human physique, and may
how they are to be eaten and digested, besides the ways serve as adoration.95
of preparing and cooking them. He also becomes aware
about different methods of cultivation, irrigation, har- While explaining the rationale of Shariah rules for pro-
vest and preservation. He learns how to benefit from hibiting wrong ways of earning wealth, Shah Waliullah
animals, their domestication and their use for different particularly takes up gambling and interest.96 He notes
works such as ploughing the land, riding over them and that gambling amounts to acquiring wealth on the basis
benefiting from their milk, meat and wool. He also of people’s ignorance, greed, false hopes and exposure
learns how to manufacture garments out of animal to risks and uncertainties produced by these conditions.
skin. In short this is an age of fulfilling the basic needs Similarly, interest is prohibited because it creates dis-
of food, shelter and clothing. In this stage the social putes among people and is a source of hatred and envy
organization is led by the person who possesses a high- among them. It also causes decline in agriculture and
er quality of sound judgment and powers to sub- industry which are fundamental means of earning a
ordinate others. There is a set pattern of rules to resolve living. 97 Shah Waliullah considers interest in lending
the disputes among people. On intellectual level there as the actual one (al-Haqiqi). He also takes note of bar-
are people who discover ways of socio-economic de- ter exchange with inequality in terms of quantity or
velopment according to their condition and other peo- time of delivery termed as Riba al-fadl and Riba al na-
ple become their followers.89 siah in the Shariah. He regards these interests in simili-
tude (Mahmulalaih).98 Prohibition of this kind of inter-
b. Al-Irtifaq al Thani (The second stage of Socio- est is known by a hadith of the Holy Prophet (SAW)
Economic Development) stating that gold for gold, silver for silver, wheat for
In this stage, various occupations of people are agricul- wheat, barley for barley, dates for dates salt for salt, be
ture, grazing animals, acquiring natural products of sea exchanged, the same for some, in equal quantity and
and land such as metals, trees, animals; different indus- hand in hand. Incase these groups are different, and
tries emerge such as carpentry, iron work, weaving, then sell them as you like (with unequal quantity).99
etc. There is division of labour and specialization of
c. Al Irtifaq al-Thalith (The Third Stage of Socio-
work among people. The division of labour arises due
Economic Development)
to diverse needs of people which they cannot satisfy
individually. 90 The division of labour and specializa- With the completion of second stage, human society
tion may be on the basis of one’s ability for doing a develops into a city stage. Shah Waliullah emphasizes
particular job or it may be incidental. For instance, the that the city does not mean walls, buildings and mar-
son of a blacksmith takes up iron work. Similarly, the ket. The city represents relations between different
person living close to the sea may take the profession groups of people based on mutual dealings and cooper-
of fishing. 91 Shah Waliullah emphasizes that one ation. 100 The integrity, interest and independence of
should be very selective in choosing one’s job. He the city are maintained through the Institution of Imam,
should not follow blind tradition of his family. 92 He who acts as a physician to maintain a healthy body of
advises municipal authorities that they should be vigi- the city.101
lant to people’s selection of jobs and should exercise In this stage, it will be the duty of the government to
some type of control if necessary to ensure that they see that proper allocation of employment is done in
do not concentrate on few jobs, leaving others unat- different industries and services. Traders and farmers
tended, and to check engagement of more people in are encouraged in their professions and arrangement
production of luxuries and their involvement in social- for their proper education is also made. He emphasizes
ly undesirable production.93
29
that the city develops with easy taxation and employ-

ment of necessary number of officials.102
d. Al-Irtifaq al Rabi (The fourth stage of socio-
economic development) 1
Al Qur’an, 4:58, 6:1523, 11:84, 16:76, 42:15
2
In this stage the human society and the institution of Ibid, 6:152, 7:85, 11:84-85, 12:59
3
the government adopts an international character and Ibid, 5:39
4
the need arises to have a government of all the gov- Ibid, 39:24
5
Ibid, 29:21
ernments (Khalifat al Khulafa). 103 This is the final 6
Ibid, 3:16, 82:1-6
stage of socio-economic development. Shah Waliullah 7
Al Qur’an, 7:152, 9:71
does not assign any economic role to the government 8
Ibid, 7:10, 7:32, 34:15
in this stage, except that it will need a lot of men and 9
Ibid, 2:29, 7:10, 13:3
material to perform the duty of keeping peace, provid- 10
Ibid, 4:29
11
ing justice and check exploitation. ibid, 2:188
12
Ibid, 2:283
Conclusion 13
Al Qur’an, 3:161
14
Muslims had practical experience of dealing with the Ibid, 5:41
15
economy and state, spread over many centuries. Their Ibid, 4:10
16
Ibid, 83:1-3
ideas bore pragmatic orientation. The scope and sub- 17
Ibid, 24:19
ject matter of their economic thinking was not confined 18
Ibid, 24:33
to satisfaction, economy of self sufficient household, 19
Ibid, 17:32
division of labour, barter and money. They discussed a 20
Ibid, 24:2
host of other problems and developed many new ideas. 21
Ibid, 5:93
22
As Muslim scholars based their ideas on both revealed Ibid, 2:275
23
knowledge and human reason, they were more suited Ibid, 2:278-80
24
to scholastic scholars. In the Islamic tradition two sets Ibid, 2:83
25
of works – al-hisbah and al-siyasah al-shar‛iyah – ap- Ibid, 2:271
26
peared that proved to be a rich source of economic Ibid, 2:83
27
Ibid, 92:5-7
thought of past Muslim thinkers. Works related to al- 28
Al Qur’an, 74:42-44
hisbah generally discussed socio-economic control, 29
Ibid, 4:7-12
moral and market supervision, prevention of monopo- 30
Ibid, 53:33-34
lies, check on cheating and fraud and other such cor- 31
Ibid, 17:29
rupting practices, standardization of products, facilita- 32
Al Qur' an, 9:34
33
tion of the supply of necessities, etc. As far as works Ibid, 4:5
34
pertaining to al-siyasah alshar'iyah are concerned, they Ibid, 2:60, 7-74
35
generally deal with the rules of governance, economic Ibid, 7:86, 13:25
36
role of the state, sources of public revenue, public ex- Imam Muslim, Sahih Muslim, Arabic English, Tr. English,
penditure (in addition to works exclusively devoted to Abdul Hamid Siddiqi, Vol, 1, (New Delhi: Adam Publish-
ers and Distributers, 2006), H. no. 186.
public finances), maintenance of law and order, inter- 37
Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn-e-Majah, Bk.12, (al-Tijarah), CH.
nal and external defense etc. 15; Muhammad Akram Khan, Economic Teachings of
Prophet Muhammad SAW (Delhi:Noor Publishing House,
1992)
38
Imam Bukhari, Sahih Bukhari, Arabic English Tr. English,
Muhammad Muhsin Khan, (Riyadh: Maktaba Dar al
Salam publishers and Distributers, 1994), H. No. 13.
39
Sahih Muslim, Op.cit., vol.1, H. No.259
40
Ibid., H. No.260
41
“Mulamasa”, means that a man touches another’s garment
or cloth or anything else without turning it over and
Munabatha, means that a man throws his cloth to another,
and the other throws his cloth to the first, thus confirming
their contract without inspection or mutual agreement. Sa-
hih Muslim, op.cit.,5, H. no. 1511
30
42 71
This is a type of transaction which was prevalent in the Ibn Taimiyah, Al-Hisbah, fi al Islam Tr. English Muhtar
markets of Jahilia Arabia. The transaction was done by Holland ed. Khurishid Ahmad, (The Islamic foundation
throwing a stone either by the seller or by the purchaser ,1982)
and whatever the stone touched, its transaction became 72
Ibn Taimiyah, Al-Siyasah al Shariah fi Islaha al Rai wa’l
binding. Ra’iyah, (Damascus: Maktaba Dar al-Bayan, 1985)
43 73
Bay al Gharar; one might translate this as arbitrary contact Ibn Taimiyah, al-Hisbah fi al Islam, op.cit. 29.
74
of sales, but this is not the only term to which it is applied. Abu Daud and al Tirmidhi, Quoted from al-Hisbah fi al
This type of transaction intended, is one in which there is Islam op.cit. 35 .
75
no guarantee that the seller can deliver the goods for Al Hisbah fi al Islam, op.cit. 36.
76
which he receives payment. It could include such items as Ibid, 40-41.
77
selling a runaway slave or fish which one has not caught. Ibid, 160.
44 78
Sahih Bukhari, Op.cit., H. No. 1022 Ibn Khaldun was born in 1332 C.E. in Tunis into an old
45
Abdul Azim Islahi, Contribution of Muslim Scholars to Arab family of the Hadramout which had emigrated first
Economic Thought and Analysis, (Jeddah: Islamic Eco- to Spain, then to Morocco and finally settled in Tunisia.
nomics Research Centre, King Abdul Aziz University, , He received a thorough education in the theological and
2004), 12 philosophical disciplines, taught at Madrasa of Tunis by
46
Contribution of Muslim Scholars to Economic Thought outstanding scholars.
79
and Analysis, Op.cit,13. Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah (An Introduction to History,
47
Ibid, 61. Tr. English, Franz Rosenthal, ed. N J Dawood, (London:
48
Yaqub ibn Ibrahim Abu Yusuf (731-798 C.E.), was a Rout ledge and Paul, 1967).
80
scholar of high degree and served as chief justice under Muqaddimah, op.cit,. 309
81
Abbasid Caliph Mahdi (d. 785 C.E.) and his son Harun (d. Ibid.
82
809 C.E.) Ibid, 310.
49 83
The book Kitab al Kharaj of Imam Abu Yusuf was first Ibid, 311.
84
published in 1885 from Cairo-Egypt. It has been translated Muqaddimah, op.cit, 46
85
into English, French, Italian, Turkish and French lan- Ibid, 310.
86
guages. Ibid, 311.
50 87
Abu Yusuf, Kitab al Kharaj (Beirut: Dar al-M’arifah, Ibid, 316-317.
88
1979),3 Qutub al Din Ahmad b.Abdur Rahim,more commonly
51
Ibid, 50. known as Shah Waliullah Dehlwi (1702-1763 C.E.), lived
52
Kitab al kharaj, Op. cit, 109 . during the Mughal rule in India. His economic ideas are
53
Ibid, 11. mainly reflected from his Hujjat Allah al Baligah. In this
54
ibid, 110. work, he explains the rationale of shariah rules for person-
55
Ibid., 65. al conduct and social organization.
56 89
Kitab al kharaj, Op. cit, 58. Shah Wali Allah, Hujjat Allah al Baligah, Vol.2, (Beirut,
57
Abu Ubayd al Qasim bin.Sallam (774-838 C.E.) was an Dar al Fikr), 40.
90
eminent scholar of Quran, Hadith and Islamic law. His Shah Waliullah, al Budur al Bazighah, al Majlis al IImi,
book is the most comprehensive work on the subject of Dabhel, 50.
91
economics. It contains about two thousand (1998) items Hujjatullah Balighah, op.cit., vol. 1, 43
92
on fiscal issues. Al- Budur, op. cit., 60.
58 93
Imam Ghazzali, Ihya al-Ulum al Din, Tr. English, Fazlul Hujjatullah Baligah, op.cit, Vol. 2, 105.
94
Karim, (New Delhi:Islamic Book Services 1995). Hujjatullah Baligah, op.cit, Vol. 2, 43 .
59 95
Abu Hamid b. Muhammad al Ghazzali (1058-1111 C.E) Ibid., vol. 2, 43
96
born in Khurasan, is one of the eminent scholars of Islam- Ibid., p. 106
97
ic Science including logic, philosophy and sufism (mysti- Hujjatullah Baligah, op.cit, Vol. 2, 106.
98
cism). Ibid., 107 .
60 99
Ihya al-Ulum al Din, Op. cit, 45 . Imam Bukari, Sahih Bukhari, op.cit.,H. no. 1027-1029
61 100
Ibid., 48. Al-Budur, op. cit, 51
62 101
Ibid., 49. Ibid., 71-72 .
63 102
Ihya al-Ulum al Din, Op.cit, Hujjatullah Balighah op. cit 45-47.
64 103
Ibid., 50. Al- Budur, op. cit 85.
65
Ibid, 51
66
Ihya al-Ulum al Din, Op.cit. 48.
67
Ibid., 53.
68
Ibid., 57.
69
Ibid.,
70
Ihya al-Ulum al Din, Op.cit, 58.
31
Selected Bibliography
Muslim, Sahih Muslim, Arabic English, Tr. English, Abdul
Hamid Siddiqi, Vol, 1. New Delhi: Adam Publishers and Dis-
tributers, 2006.
Akram Khan, Muhammad. Economic Teachings of Prophet
Muhammad SAW. Delhi:Noor Publishing House, 1992.
Bukhari, Sahih Bukhari, Arabic English Tr. English, Muham-
mad Muhsin Khan. Riyadh: Maktaba Dar al Salam publishers
and Distributers, 1994.
Islahi, Abdul Azim. Contribution of Muslim Scholars to Eco-
nomic Thought and Analysis Jeddah: Islamic Economics Re-
search Centre, King Abdul Aziz University, 2004.
Abu Yusuf, Kitab al Kharaj. Beirut: Dar al-M’arifah, 1979.
Ghazzali, Imam. Ihya al-Ulum al Din, Tr. English, Fazlul Ka-
rim. New Delhi: Islamic Book Services 1995
Ibn Taimiyah, Al-Hisbah, fi al Islam Tr. English Muhtar Hol-
land ed. Khurishid Ahmad. The Islamic foundation, 1982.
Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah (An Introduction to History, Tr.
English, Franz Rosenthal, ed. N J Dawood. London: Rout ledge
and Paul, 1967.
Shah Wali Allah, Hujjat Allah al Baligah, Vol.2. Beirut, Dar al
Fikr.
32
The Meaning of Religious Dialogue:

According to Christian-Muslim Theologians in Pakistan
Abstract
The study is the presentation of different forms of dialogues in Pakistan. Dr. De Souza has analyzed briefly
how in an Islamic state, Christians are enjoying equal rights with a spirit of social service and sharing. Jan
Slomp's viewpoint is that dialogue is difficult to take place in Pakistan because of Muslims’ arrogance, as
they are a majority and Christians are also not prepared for dialogue because of their Hindu background.
According to John O’Brien, secular system in Pakistan would favor all the communities. If Islamic system
is implemented, it would have negative effects on promoting dialogue. Dr. Ansari proposes that Muslims
could spell out and, together with Jews and Christians, strive for such values that would please God. Dr.
Khalid Alavi says about the inter-religious dialogue, "it is the new tactic which is used to confuse the Mus-
lims in inter-religious dialogue. In diplomatic language, it is called “engagement”. According to Khalid
Jameel, the dialogue should be based on equality. The dialogue is useless if we do not reach up to their
level of growth, advancement and development.
Keywords: Pakistan, Dialogue, Christian, Muslim and Religion
Introduction some other reasons for the failure of dialogue in Paki-

stan. To him there are deeper religious and political
It is a fact that Pakistani Muslims hardly played a role
reasons embedded in the Islamic culture. To Muslims,
in dialogue whenever and wherever it was organized.
the final book, The Holy Quran has settled all the is-
There are some misunderstandings regarding dialogue
sues. To revise them would mean that Muslims have
in Pakistan. There is a huge gap between the followers
doubts in the final revelation. In other words, dialogue
of Islam and others. No proper interaction is found
is dangerous for their faith. The Pakistani scene pro-
among the people. The followers of every religion have
vides a gloomy picture of conflict among the Muslims
their own ideologies, which obstruct them from mixing
themselves. There have been made some fruitless ef-
with others. Many critics have viewed the situation
forts in this regard. Beside this, in Pakistan, people
from different angles. They have highlighted some
problems, which create difficulties in carrying out dia- view the Christian mission as enemy of Islam.2
logue in Pakistan. To conclude Jan Slomp's viewpoint, it can be stated
Christian Theologians and Dialogue in Pakistan that dialogue was difficult to take place because of
a. Jan Slomp and Dialogue Muslims’ arrogance, as they are a majority. The Chris-
tian Church had no academic personalities for dia-
Jan Slomp in an article “problems and possibilities for logue. Christians are also not prepared for dialogue
dialogue in Pakistan” has narrated a brief history of because of their Hindu background. Dialogue is also
dialogue. He has discussed at length why dialogue does difficult because of deeper religious and political rea-
not thrive in Pakistan. To him, there are certain reasons sons. All these problems can be overcome only when
for that. misunderstandings are removed and there is religious
First of all, the Christian community was not ready for liberty for every sect.
that as it carries with it the Hindu background. Second- b. John O’Brien and Dialogue
ly, Muslims had never accepted non-Muslims in Paki-
stan as equal partners. There had always been differ- John O'Brien3 has also discussed dialogue in different
ence in that. Another reason may be that the Christian forms in Pakistan. Regarding this, he says that Mus-
Church had no people for dialogue at an academic lev- lims and Christians go for shared struggle for many
el. The well-trained ones unusually migrate to Europe achievements. They come closer to each other at work
or are too busy with their own work to go for extra ac- places, educational institutes, hospitals, etc. They are
tivities. The arrogance of majority and ghetto mentality also seen together for prayers. Besides, in the matters
of minority is also a hurdle in dialogue. of daily life, they meet to facilitate each other. All this
has led the Muslims and Christians to religious harmo-
Beside these problems, Jan Slomp 1 has pointed out ny. They have developed respect for each other. John
33
O'Brien while discussing dialogue has on the contrary In the editorial of “Focus,” the situation of dialogue is
also highlighted some areas that could not be accepted discussed in detail. In the same writing, the difficulties
by Christians. These are the issues that have created and results of conducting dialogue in Pakistan have
difference between Muslims and Christians. In an Is- been highlighted.
lamic state, Christians are bound to study some part of
Both Muslims and Christians face difficulties. The
the Holy Quran at school. The punishment for blas-
Muslims think that there may be a hidden agenda be-
phemous remarks about the Holy Prophet of Islam
hind dialogue. The most notable notion is that this is a
(SAW) is death. This has negatively affected inter-
mean to convert others. The government’s determina-
religious dialogue. Similarly, non-Muslims could be
tion to implement Islamic Laws worries the Christians.
witnesses of any incident in the court of law. But they
Thus, they hesitate for dialogue and consider them-
could not be equal to the Muslims. In short, the gov-
selves as second-class citizen. Most of the Christians
ernment of Pakistan has tried to implement Islamic law
struggle to survive and cannot spare time for dialogue.
in the country. If it is so, then people of other religions
They often blame Muslims for their problems.
are bound to follow Islamic system of life. John O'Bri-
en has pointed out this important aspect that has si- It means that dialogue has been obstructed because of
lenced Christians and made them suffer in certain re- misunderstanding about its very nature. Both Muslims
spects. To him, there should be a secular system in Pa- and Christians are afraid of being converted. Christians
kistan that would favor all the communities. If Islamic are worried about their survival so they cannot go for
system is implemented, it would have negative effects dialogue.7 These are the views from Christian scholars.
on promoting dialogue. Christians in that case would As far as Muslims are concerned, they resist dialogue
have to become quite passive and remain silent. They as a part of Christian Mission. To them, dialogue is a
cannot have freedom to express themselves.4 platform where the Christians try to explain their own
problems and superiority, hence trying to convert the
c. Dr. De Souza and Dialogue
people. Some of the examples to clarify this view can
Discussing the condition of dialogue in Pakistan Dr. be stated as under:
De Souza,5 says that Christians and Muslims have been In the first Pakistan Conference for Christian Edu-
living together in Pakistan since 1947. There is a dia- cation that was held in Multan it was said, “Chris-
logue of life between them in many fields. They are tian minorities could not survive without meaning-
neighbors, co-workers, classmates, colleagues, etc. and ful inter-religious dialogue in Pakistan. So it should
have mutual respect and harmony. This dialogue has be the duty of Christian teachings that the Christian
been at the common level and had no deeper roots. It children and adults should be prepared for the inter-
can be seen as a form of co-existence. Secondly, with religious dialogue”.8
the passage of time, both Muslims and Christians have A conference titled, “Asian Journey 1997” was held in
been getting closer to each other on humanitarian basis. Pakistan by Pastoral Institute, Multan continued from
The social, political and economic activities are carried January 20-30, 1997. The participants were from ten
out together for the welfare of the people and the state. countries of Asia, Europe and Australia. The partici-
This has been going on throughout the whole of Paki- pants of the conference were given the chance to visit
stan. Thirdly, finally, the proper form of dialogue is Pakistan, see the people and know the present situation
that when the scholars of the two religions meet and themselves for two days. After that, these participants
discuss religious matters. This dialogue is limited to gathered in Pastoral Institute, Multan, and had a sitting
selective people. There has been a growing interest in for a goal and had a commentary and social analysis
various parts of the country in this form of dialogue.6 according to their experiment and observation.9
The above-mentioned forms of dialogues really are The conference participants decided keeping in view
found in Pakistan. Dr. De Souza has analyzed briefly their observations that for the Muslim-Christian rela-
how in an Islamic state, Christians are enjoying equal tionship, Christian preachers should concentrate on
rights. In the social setup of the country, life runs with their education. Especially, the Christians should be
no difference among the people regarding religion. A encouraged for their treatment towards Muslim neigh-
spirit of service and sharing is found in the society. bors, have a positive voice towards Islam and have a
There are certain organizations also which are working critical view towards distinctive governmental policies.
for the betterment of relations of different religions. The participants of the conference had in their mind
Scholars of Islam and Christianity meet to share their that “there is no difference between the inter-religious
views about different issues. dialogue and Bible”. It is the two in one.10
34
Muslim Theologians and Dialogue in Pakistan world does not have any organized system. So the
question is: to what end should one conduct a dialogue
a. Dr. Zafar Ishaq Ansari and Dialogue
and with whom? No one knows the answer to this.15
Dr. Ansari 11 in his article “Reflections on Islamic Ba-
ses for Dialogue” proposes that Muslims could spell Churches choose the Muslim members who are called
out and, together with Jews and Christians, strive for in for dialogue and then a policy statement is issued. In
such values that would please God. such activities of dialogue, the churches and European
States' policies are prepared and enforced. The topics
According to Ansari, “The need for dialogue with peo- of the dialogue are those which the European countries
ple of other religious convictions arises from the con- set to pressurize the Muslim societies, such as freedom
cern of Muslims with the welfare of their fellow be- of women, human rights, non-Muslim minorities, Is-
ings. Muslims are under the obligation to bear witness lamic states secularization and enforcement of Shariah.
to the truth revealed to Muhammad (SAW) and In these dialogue meetings, the behavior of the Chris-
prompter to share it with the rest of humanity. Ansari tian participant is aggressive and instructive while the
suggests that the Muslim’s attitude towards people who Muslims behavior is defensive and apologetic.16
decline to identify themselves with Islamic doctrines
ought to be one of mutual fellowship and cordiality c. Khalid Jameel and Dialogue
(without compromising the Muslim duty to make the Khalid Jameel, the director of the department of publi-
word of God prevail), if such persons refrain from ac- cations of Karachi University said “we should not have
tive hostility to Islam and Muslims”.12 dialogue with these Christians because the western
Ansari’s point of view is also remarkable. Dialogue powers are supporting them, and they are well orga-
with People of the Book is needed for the welfare of nized in their political, economic and defensive sys-
fellow Muslims. Muslims are obligated to share the tems.
truth with others. Through dialogue, non-Muslims can The dialogue should be based on equality. The dia-
be refrained from active hostility towards Islam. logue is useless if we do not reach up to their level of
b. Dr. Khalid Alavi and Dialogue growth, advancement and development.17
For these reasons, some Muslim scholars think that Thus, dialogue according to Muslim theologians, is to
dialogue is a secret agenda of Christians through which confuse the Muslims as it is a kind of engagement in
they are achieving their aims. As Dr. Khalid Alavi13 order to know their planning and intentions. Church is
says about the inter-religious dialogue, "it is the new an organized religious institute while there is no orga-
tactic which is used to confuse the Muslims in inter- nized religious group of Muslims. Churches choose the
religious dialogue. In diplomatic language it is called Muslim members and just inform them of their policy
“engagement”. According to this, a relationship is statement. Through dialogue, the European countries
maintained with the opposition to know their planning, pressurize the Muslim societies through aggressive and
their intentions and psychology and thus mould their instructive behavior. Dialogue is part of The Christian
own line of setting. According to this, the opposition mission in Pakistan. The churches and Christians are
has no way out”.14 In the last three centuries, Chris- funded by foreign countries promoting the agenda of
Christians and European secular powers. They have
tians shaped themselves in a colonialism that targeted
better political, economic and defensive systems and
Islam, Muslim and the Muslim world. The Church
dialogue is possible only on the basis of equality.
started dialogue to engage the Muslims and through
this they are achieving their different aims. On the one Conditions and Purposes for Dialogue in Pakistan
hand, Muslim-Christian relationship is popularized in
The most important thing to keep in mind is that dia-
Muslim societies while on the other hand, they are
logue should never be used as a tool for conversion or
clearing the way for Christianity through this, and dif-
as a means for evangelization. This not only prevents
ferent sects of Christians are holding a dialogue with
dialogue from happening but also causes the partici-
Muslims. Further explaining the dialogue, Dr. Khalid
pants to approach each other mistrustfully.18As Chris-
Alavi says that the church has an advantage that it is an
organized religious institute while in the Islamic world tians struggle hard to promote their mission, the Mus-
except for the Shi'a; there is no organized religious lims too want to preach the message of Islam to all
group. Saudi Arabia and Libya have maintained some mankind. But the important point is that none of them
organizations that are working under their government should try to force the others to accept their respective
and representatives of their government but the Islamic religion. Another condition for dialogue is that the par-
35
ticipants should accept each other as they are. Both nologist. To have dialogue in its true sense, it is neces-
Muslims and Christians should be aware of similarities sary to train the people, as communication necessarily
and differences.19 They must be respectful to each oth- needs to know how and what to communicate.
er. During dialogue, the parties should learn more
Conclusion
about each other. This would guide them for mutual
understanding. This is the only way for dialogue. Dialogue can only be possible if the participants are
open minded. They should not try to convert each oth-
The controversial issues cannot hold the dialogue to
er. Both Muslims and Christians should learn about
continue. The participants should avoid controversy as
each other’s religion as much as possible. They should
much as possible. If Christians and Muslims look for
remain respectful to each other. The controversial is-
conflicts between them, there are many. Sorry to say,
sues must be avoided in dialogical discussions. Mus-
these do not lead them to dialogue. It means that Mus-
lims should train their scholars in all fields of
lims and Christians should meet to discuss the issues
knowledge. The importance of any particular religion
helpful for the betterment of mankind and for the es-
for its followers must be accepted. Only these condi-
tablishment of a peaceful society.20 tions can lead to a fruitful dialogue. Islam is the reli-
There are certain common points such as God's will gion that first of all started dialogue and taught the
and dignity of human beings. Only these can only principles and conditions for it. It is obligatory for
make Muslims and Christian come closer to each other. Muslims to prepare themselves according to Quranic
Beside these conditions, the participants of dialogue teachings and propagate the message of Islam. It must
should be clear about the meaning of dialogue. It is not be made clear that Islam is the only religion, which
a debate. Dialogue is a means to learn, i.e., change and guarantees world peace, brotherhood, tolerance, human
grow in perception and understanding of reality.21 rights and religious harmony. It is undoubtedly a code
of life for mankind.
According to Prof. Dr. M. M. Dheen Muhammad, 22
dialogue here does not mean doubt in the faith as in
dictionary, but it means non-violence scientific method
in comparative religions which was not known before
except after the ascendant of the Holy Quran.
Previous religions or people do not find this method in
their holy books or resources. Western people in the
Medieval Age, or in the age of Islam never knew as the
term of dialogue in their religious faith, nor do they do
they believe it.23 S. W. Ariarajah also points out that:
Dialogue by nature is a two-way traffic; those who
insist and behave as though they are the only ones
on the road are bound to meet with accidents and
the purpose of dialogue will be lost.24
These are some of the basic conditions for dialogue. If
both sides follow these, then dialogue can be fruitful.
Besides, Muslims and Christians should also overcome
ignorance, bias and misunderstandings. Each commu-
nity of faith should be encouraged to have an open
mind towards other faiths. It should also get knowledge
about it. Religions must be taught in the right manner.
Both quantity and quality must be so that the learner
can easily get true picture of that religion. For the Mus-
lims, it is necessary to train the people in all fields of
western knowledge. The Christians have highly quali-
fied people who enter into dialogue. They have many
Islamologists who are experts in matters of Islam.25 On
the other hand, Muslims have not only been far away
from other religions, but have no real Muslim christia-
36

11
Dr. Zafar Ishaq Ansari (born 27 December 1932) is a
1
John, Slomp (1932) had been a prominent figure among the scholar of Islamic Studies. He is the Director General of
Western Christian scholars who worked hard to promote the Islamic Research Institute of the International Islamic
relationship between the Muslims and Christians. He be- University. Previously, he has also been the President of
longed to a Dutch reformed Church as a missionary. John the International Islamic University Islamabad. He has
Slomp was brought up as a missionary who would be able published a number of books and articles, and has spoken
to serve the mission among the Muslims. He studied Islam at international conferences on Islamic Studies and inter-
and Arabic language and literature. After the early educa- religious dialogue. Dr. Ansari obtained his M.A. and PhD
tion, John Slomp chose Pakistan where he could propagate from the Institute of Islamic Studies,McGill University,
the Christian mission. He learnt the Urdu language and Montreal, Canada in 1966. His main thesis for his PhD
came to Pakistan in 1974 as a missionary. Here he joined a program was titled “The Early Development of Fiqh in
Church in Sahiwal and took great interest in the affairs Kufah with special reference to the works of Abu Yusuf
and problems of local Christians. He got many chances to and Shaybani”.
12
work with the other European ecumenical and dialogical Von Denffer, Ahmad, Some Reflections on Dialogue be-
organizations. The representative of the Christian Study tween Christians and Muslims, (UK, Leicester: The Islam-
Center "Al-Mushir" has published numerous articles of ic Foundation, 1989), 18.
13
John Slomp. See, 'Alam-e- Islam and 'Isayyat", (January Dr. Khalid Alavi was an Ex-Director of Dawah Academy,
1995), 29-30; See for more details of his life and mission- International Islamic University, Islamabad
14
ary work: Muslims and Christians in Europe: Breaking See, Dawah (monthly), (Islamabad: Dawah Academy,
new grounds, Ch: 3, (Netherland, 1993). International Islamic University, July, 2005), 47.
2 15
Dayanadan Francis (ed.). New Approaches to Inter-Faith Ibid., 48.
16
Dialogue (Sweden: The Church of Sweden Mission, See, Dawah (monthly), (Islamabad: Dawah Academy,
1972), 83-88. International Islamic University, July, 2005), 48.
17
3
Johan, O’Brien, was born in Ireland and studied science, Taken an interview on 25th November, 2005, Islamabad.
18
education and theology. He worked as a teacher in Sierra Talbi, Muhammad, Islam and Dialogue (UK, Leicester:
Leore, as a community activist in inner city Dublin and The Islamic Foundation, 1997), 88.
19
has lectured on theology in many countries, He first came See, Inter-religious Documents 1: Guidelines for Dialogue
to Pakistan as a missionary in 1977 where he continues to between Christians and Muslims, Prepared by Maurice
live and work among marginalized minorities. His books Borrmans, (New York: Paulist Press, 1990), 31-32.
20
include Theology and the option for the poor (Col- W.M. Watt, Islamic Revelation in the Modern World, (Ed-
legeville), Seeds of a new Church (Colombia) and Naia inburgh, 1969), 121.
21
Mashra Naia Insan (Karachi), Urdu. See, Guidelines On Dialogue, (Geneva: World Council of
4
See, Johan, O’Brien, “Our presence to the world of Islam Churches, 1982), 8-9.
22
in Pakistan”. In Encounter, (Documents for Muslim Chris- Prof. Dr. M. M. Dheen, Muhammad who was the head of
tian understanding), (Italy, Roma: Pontifico Istituto Di Department of Comparative Religion in the Faculty of Is-
Studi Arabi E D’Islamistica Viale Di Trastevere, 2004), 7- lamic Studies (Usuluddin) IIU, Islamabad.
9. 23
Dheen Muhammad, “Min Manahij-il-Ulama-e-Muslimeen
5
Achilles De Souza, a Pakistani priest of the Archdiocese of fi Dirasat-i-Adyan,” In Al-Howliya, Al-Jamia Al-Islamia
Karachi, was born in Karachi in 1942. He holds a PhD Al-Alamia, Islamabad: International Islamic University,
from the Gregorian University (Rome) and his doctoral Vol. 3, 1995), 93-94.
thesis was entitled “Mediation in Islam: an Investigation”. 24
Ariarajah, S. Wesley, “The understanding and Practice of
For more than twenty years he has been teaching philoso- Dialogue: Its Nature, Purpose and Variations.” In Faith
phy, Islamic studies and Christian-Muslim relations at the Midst of Faiths, S. J. Samartha, ed., (Geneva; W. C.
Christ the King Seminary in Karachi. C., 1977), 54-56.
6
De Souza, Achilles, “Dialogue in the Islamic Republic of 25
Talbi, Muhammad, “Possibilities and Conditions for a
Pakistan.” In Islamo Christiana, (Italy, Rome: Pontifico better understanding between Islam and the West” In
Istituto Di Studi Arabi E D’Islamistica, Vol. 4, 1988), Journal of Ecumenical Studies, vol. 25, No. 2, (spring
215-217; See also The Christian Voice, (Karachi: Vol. 1988):184.
XIVI, No.42, Sunday, October 1995).
7
See, Focus, (Multan: Pastoral Institute, Vol. 2, 1988), 102-
103.
8
Ibid. (July 1997), 7.
9
See, Focus, (Multan: Pastoral Institute, vol. 3, 1988), 80-
82.
10
See, Alam-e-Islam owr Esayait, (Islamabad: Institute of
Policy Studies, 1995, (May 1997),17.
37
Ariarajah, S. Wesley, “The understanding and Practice of Dia-
logue: Its Nature, Purpose and Variations.” In Faith the Midst
of Faiths, S. J. Samartha, ed., Geneva; W. C. C., 1977.
Borrman Maurice. Inter-religious Documents 1: Guidelines for
Dialogue between Christians and Muslims. New York: Paulist
Press, 1990), 31-32.
De Souza, Achilles, “Dialogue in the Islamic Republic of Paki-
stan.” In Islamo Christiana. Italy, Rome: Pontifico Istituto Di
Studi Arabi E D’Islamistica, Vol. 4, (1988)
De Souza, Achilles, The Christian Voice. [Karachi: Vol. XIVI,
No.42, (Sunday, October 1995)].
Francis Dayanadan. (ed.). New Approaches to Inter-Faith Dia-
logue. Sweden: The Church of Sweden Mission, 1972.
Johan, O’Brien, “Our presence to the world of Islam in Paki-
stan”. In Encounter. [Documents for Muslim Christian under-
standing), (Italy, Roma: Pontifico Istituto Di Studi Arabi E
D’Islamistica Viale Di Trastevere, 2004]
Muhammad, Dheen, “Min Manahij-il-Ulama-e-Muslimeen fi
Dirasat-i-Adyan,” In Al-Howliya, Al-Jamia Al-Islamia Al-
Alamia, Islamabad: International Islamic University, Vol. 3
(1995).
Slomp, John. Muslims and Christians in Europe: Breaking New
Grounds. Netherland, 1993.
Talbi, Muhammad, “Possibilities and Conditions for a better
understanding between Islam and the West” In Journal of Ecu-
menical Studies, vol. 25, No. 2, (spring 1988).
Talbi, Muhammad, Islam and Dialogue. UK, Leicester: The
Islamic Foundation, 1997.
Von Denffer, Ahmad, Some Reflections on Dialogue between
Christians and Muslims. UK, Leicester: The Islamic Founda-
tion, 1989.
Watt, W. M., Islamic Revelation in the Modern World. Edin-
burgh, 1969.
38
A Statistical Analysis for Increasing Reward

with Increasing Size of Jam′at
Ahmed F. Siddiqi
Abstract
The concept of jam’at is one of the most intrinsic concepts of the social edifice of Islam. The reward of a
salaat, as enunciated by Holy Prophet (SAW) is multiplied by saying it in jama’at. There are sayings of
the Holy Prophet (SAW) which can be made to show that the reward of a jama’at is a mathematical func-
tion of that of a salaat said individually. This paper is an attempt to find that function. It is being estab-
lished here that this function is parabolic, with a very sharp slope in nature, and may be deduced to ex-
trapolate the divine reward one may have by saying a salaat in jama’at, at one hand, and to appraise the
increase in reward with the size of the jama’at. The same function also connects different, apparently con-
flicting sayings of the Holy Prophet (SAW) regarding the comparisons in this reward.
Keywords: Least Square, Reward for Salaa
1. Introduction avoided coming to the mosque to say their prayers in

jama’at due to laziness or indifference, he observed with
The concept of jam’at, congregation, is one of the basic anger that he felt like burning down their homes.
and the most cited concepts in Islam. The Holy Quran
ordains “...bow down your heads with those who bow There are several traditions in which the Prophet of Is-
down...”1. The essential part of every obligatory pray- lam, Mohammad (SAW), dilated upon the value and re-
er, salaat, called fardh, are said in jama’at. The whole wards of salaat, especially salaat said in jama’at from
Muslim body that can assemble in one place, both men different dimensions. Followings are a few of these holy
and women, must gather at the appointed time, praise sayings of the Prophet (SAW) comparing the reward of a
and glorify God, and address their petitions to Him as a salaat said individually and in jam’at;
single body. All people stand shoulder to shoulder in a 1. Saying salaat in jam’at is better than saying indi-
row, or in several rows, as the case may be, their feet vidually. Jam’at of three is better than that of two
being in one line, and one person, chosen from among and the liking of Allah increases with the size of
them, and called Imam, leads the salaat, and stands in jam’at.2
front of all. Such a formation develops a unique social
cohesiveness among the members of this formation. And 2. Two persons performing salaat together, with one as
perhaps, this social cohesiveness is the most important imaam, are liked by Allah more than four persons
earthly reward of this jam’at which promotes connect- saying salaat individually; similarly, four persons
edness in the community. performing salaat with jama’at (congregation) are
liked by Allah more than eight persons saying it in-
The salaat is one of the most important duties of a Mus- dividually and (again) eight persons performing sa-
lim, after one has reached faith in one God and in laat with jama’at are liked by Allah more than one
Prophet Mohammad (SAW). It is the most special act of hundred persons saying it individually.3
divine worship, which a Muslim is called upon to prac- 3. Saying salaat in jam’at is 25 times more reward
tice five times a day. There are numerous verses of the giving as compared to a salaat said individually in
Holy Quran and the Traditions of the Prophet (SAW) home and/or market place.4
enjoining the salaat on us. It has been described as the
pillar and the foundation of the faith. Salaat, if offered 4. Salaat in jam’at is 27 times more reward giving as
with a sincere heart, proper devotion and mental concen- compared to that in individual.5
tration, is particularly vested with the property of cleans- All these holy sayings, bullet 1 to 4, show numerical
ing the heart, reforming one’s life and ridding it of sins comparisons between the salaats said individually and
and impurities. It generates love for piety and truth and in jama’at. The holy saying in bullet 1 show the liking
promotes fear of God in man. It is further ordained that of Allah for a jama’at as increased by increasing the size
the bounties of salaat are multiplied when said in ja- of jama’at from two persons to three. But it does not
ma’at. The Holy Quran has clear verdict on the jama’at. quantify the increase in this liking. The saying in bullet
The Prophet (SAW) was very particular about it; once 2 discusses the value of reward, as a proxy of Allah’s
while condemning the conduct of Muslims those who liking. It does quantify and show the details of the
39
arithmetic for the value of reward as increased with So, the reward of the salaat in jama’at (congrega-
the size of the jama’at. The sayings in bullet 3 and 4 tion) is proportional to the reward of the salaat
are again a comparison of the reward but without the said individually. Mathematically, this propor-
details and seem to be in conflict with what is being tionality may be written in the form of a function;
said in bullet 2 and even in bullet 1. The conflict as it
appears, or the difference in the numerals is quite per- Reward of jam’at = f (Reward of Individual salaat) (1)
plexing, especially for staunch believers who cannot The form and the shape of this function f is interesting
even think of any difference in the holy sayings. The enough to forecast the value of reward for the whole
religious literature of Muslim is silent in this regard. No jama’at and for the individual. The following sections
academic research is available either. Qurashi 6 opines suggests different approaches to mimic, in the first hand,
however, that it is related, or specific, to higher sizes the curve in the form of a mathematical function which
of the jama’at while discussing these sayings in the may further be used to extrapolate, or forecast, the value
study of motivation. of reward for any number of participants of the jam’at.
Let’s explore the arithmetic given in holy saying in 2. Exploring the Mathematical Function
bullet 2. In tabular form, the arithmetic is given in
Table 1. The saying of Holy Prophet (SAW) may be deduced into
a value of total reward for the jama’at when the size of
Table 1: The Value of Reward as Increased by the Size of the jama’at increases continuously. Similarly, the val-
the Jam'at ue of the reward for each individual person in the ja-
Persons in Jam'at 1 2 4 8 ma’at may also be deduced.
Total 1 more than more than more than Let’s use the principle of least squares7 to fit an appro-
Reward 4 8 100 priate curve to the data which may be used to extrapo-
Reward for Each more than more than more than late or forecast the value of reward for any number of
1
Individual 4/2=2 8/4=2 100/8=12.5 persons. Figure 1(a) suggests it either to be a parabolic,
power or an exponential curve (and absolutely not line-
The ratios in the last rows are not part of the holy ar) which may well represent the data. Figure 2 gives
saying and are deduced by dividing the total rewards few choices for the possible curves for the data includ-
by the number of participants of the jama’at. A graph-
ing power, parabolic and exponential curve. Figure 2 (a)
ical depiction of these statistics is given in Figure 1;
is a power curve for the data in the Hadith. It appears to
where 1(a) in left panel shows the dynamics of the to-
miss two data points which obliterate its representative-
tal reward of the salaat as the number of participants ness. Figure 2(b) is a parabola and uses all the data
grow, while 1(b) gives the dynamics of the reward for points. The right most panel, Figure 2(c), shows an
each participant of the salaat. The value of the reward, exponential curve which is also missing the last data
in both cases, increases very sharply as the size of the
point and which results in its lesser representativeness.
jam’at grows. One may be curious to find the value of
Qurashi (1983) uses a power curve to derive formula for
reward for other numbers of participants. The current motivation, cooperation and achievement of a team. The
article is an attempt in the same direction. It should be
parabolic curve, Fig. 2(b) seems to be more representa-
noted here that the attempt is mere by a mathematical tive for the data.
deduction of the holy saying and not in any way an
inductive interpretation. It is simply an effort to ex-
trapolate the value and amount of reward for other
higher sizes of the jama’at.
(a) Power Curve
(a) Total Reward (b) Individual’s Reward

Figure 1: Graphical Depiction of the Hadith
40
𝑎 3 14 84 −1 112
(𝑏 ) = (14 84 584 ) ( 840 )
𝑐 84 584 4368 6544
28
= (−19)
3.5
So the parabolic equation, or the functional form of Eq.
(b) Parabolic Curve 1, turns out to be
rt = 3.5p2 − 19p + 28 (2)
which shows that the reward of a salaat said in jama’at
is exalted by a function, as defined in the right hand
side of the Eq. 2. The same equation may also be used
for extrapolation and forecasting. Table 3 shows the ex-
trapolated values and how the size of the jam’at increas-
es the value of the reward of the whole salaat. The first
column of the table shows the size of the jam’at in
terms of number of its participants while the second
(c) Exponential column shows the value of the reward in terms of indi-
Figure 2: Possible Curve Choices for the Data viduals saying their salaat individually. For example,
the reward of a jama’at said by 10 persons is more than
Symbolizing the individualistic reward of each per- 3.5 × 102 − 19 × 10 + 28 = 188 times that of a salaat said
sons by p (with p > 0) and the value of reward (in by a single person. Similarly, the reward of the jama’at
terms of this individualistic reward) by r, the data can said by 100 persons is increased by 33,128 times than
be composed into Table 2 for the application of the that said by a single person. The reward goes up exponen-
principle of least squares; The first two columns are tially.
simply a re-written form of the saying as columns in
Table 1 while the rest of the columns are different prod- Table 3: Extrapolated Values of the Reward
ucts of these columns, as per the principles, to be used Size of Jam’at Total Reward Individual’s Reward
for the composition of normal equations. 5 20.5 3.3
The three normal equations are thus given by: 10 188 23
Table 2: Fitting a Parabola by Using Principle of Least
15 530.5 64.6
Squares 20 1048 128
25 1740.5 213.3
P R PR P2 P2R P3 P4
30 2608 320.5
2 4 8 14 16 8 16 40 4868 600.5
50 7828 968
4 8 32 16 128 64 256 100 33128 4118
8 100 800 64 6400 512 4096 A similar analysis for the reward per person can also be
deduced from the Holy saying. Figure 1(b) suggests
Sum 14 112 840 84 6544 584 4368 again a parabolic curve for the data being the most repre-
sentative curve mimicking the data in the holy saying.
112 = 3a + 14b + 54c
The method of least squares gives an equation for the val-
840 = 14a + 84b + 584c ue of reward per person.
6544 = 84a + 584b + 4368c
The forecasting equation turns out to be
Solving these equations for the unknowns a, b, and c, ri = 0.4375p2 − 2.625p + 5.5 (3)
using the method of matrices,
which shows that the value of the reward per person is
given by a function on the right hand side of the Eq. 3.
The same equation may also be used for forecasting.
41
The last column of the Table 3 shows how this equa- the reward increases with the size of jama’at. Howev-
tion may be used for different sizes of the jama’at. For er, these sayings portray apparently only a fragmented
example, the individual reward of each person in a figure, especially when one wants to read them for the
jama’at of 15 persons is more than 0.4375 × 152 − relationship between the value of reward and the size
2.625 × 15 + 5.5 ≈ 65 times than that of a salaat said sin- of the jam’at. Further, different sayings seem to be at
gularly. odds with each other. It has been attempted in this paper
to make deductions and extrapolate the value of this
The same table seems to be solving the confusion which
divine reward and connect these, seemingly different and
arouses while reading holy sayings, in bullets 1 through
conflicting, sayings to complete the picture.
4, one after the other. The saying in bullet 2 goes up to
8 persons while the value of individual reward of each It has been derived here that the relationship between the
person in a jama’at of 10 persons is deduced to be more reward of a salaat said in jama’at and the size of the
than 23 times that of a salat said singularly, as per col- jama’at is parabolic, as narrated by the Holy Prophet
umn 2 of Table 3. And this is very near to what is being (SAW), in nature. This parabolic function can thus be
said in the sayings at bullet 3 and 4. So, there is no con- used to deduce and extrapolate the value of reward for
fusion in these sayings as bullet 2 talks in terms of total different sizes of the jama’at. The same parabolic func-
reward of the jama’at while the later two sayings talk tion connects different apparently conflicting sayings
in terms of individual’s reward. In other words, the of the Holy Prophet (SAW)
sayings at bullet 3 or 4 is/are a continuation of the saying
It should be kept here in the mind that the analysis pre-
in bullet 2.
sented here is simply a deduction of the saying of the
A general view of these equations is shown in Figure 3, Holy Prophet (SAW) and the actual reward of the sa-
which is a graphical presentation of these two equations, laat, either said singularly or in congregation, is known
Eq. 2 and 3, and shows how the holy saying in bullet 2 only to Allah, (SWT), who may exalt the reward many
can be deduced to extrapolate the value of reward for times higher than the figures deduced here.
different sizes of the jama’at. The left panel, 3(a),
shows the extrapolation of the total reward with the
References and End Notes
size of jama’at while the right panel, 3(b), shows this 1
Quran, 02:243; And be steadfast in prayer; Practise regular
extrapolation for the value of reward for each individ-
charity;a nd bow down your heads with those who bow
ual participant of the jama’at. An exponential curve down (in worship).
with a very sharp slope is the characteristic feature of 2
Imam Abu Dawood Sulaiman b Ash’ath, Sunan Abi
both of these figures which shows how rapidly the Dawood, chapter 02, “Prayer” Hadith numb, 2554.
reward of a jama’at increases with the size of this ja- 3
Ahmad bin ‘Amr al Bazzar and Sulaiman b Ahmad al
ma’at. Tabrani , Musnad of Imam Bazzar and Tabarani, 1352;
Ali ibn Abu Bakr al-Haythami, Majma al-Zawa’id,
Mu’assasah al-Ma’arif, Beirut
4
Muhammad bin Ismail al Bukhari, Sahih Bukhari, 8466.
5
Muslim ibn-e-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, 1477.
6
M. Qurashi, “A Statistical Analysis of Motivation, Coop-
eration & achievement- part iv Formula for increase of
value/reward with increasing size of ja-
ma’at/congregation, vis-a-vis mutual interaction”. Science
& Technology in the Islamic World, vol 1, no. 4 (1983):227-
235.
(a) Total Reward (b) Individual’s Reward 7
Plackett, R. L. “Studies in the History of Probability and
Figure 3: Forecasted Reward for Jam’at Statistics. Xxix: The Discovery of the Method of Least
Squares. Biometrika, vol.59, no,02 (1972): 239-251.
3. Conclusion
The concept of jama’at is among the most important
concepts in Islam. It has been ordained, in the Holy
Quran, to “bow down heads (for salaat) with those who
bow down.” There have been many traditions and say-
ings of Holy Prophet (SAW) exalting the status of the
salaat said in jama’at, in terms of its divine reward.
Further, it has been told (by Holy Prophet (SAW)) that
42
al-Bazzar and Tabarani, Musnad of Abu Bakr al-Bazzar and
Al-Tabarani. 1352 AH.
al Haythmi, Ali ibn Abu Bakr. Majma al-Zawa’id. Mu’assash
al-Ma’arif, Beirut.
Bukhari, M. Sahih al-Bukhari. Dar al-Fikr. 466A.H.
Abu Dawud, Sulaiman b Ash’ath. Sunun Abu Dawud, Dar al-
Fikr.
Muslim, Ibn-e-Hajjaj. Sahih al-Muslim,. Dar al-Fikr.
Plackett, R. L. “Studies in the History of Probability and
Statistics. Xxix: The Discovery of the Method of Least
Squares. Biometrika, vol.59, no,02 (1972): 239-251.
The Meaning of The Holy Quran by Abdullah Yusuf Ali.
Amana Corporation, Maryland, USA.
Qurashi, M. “A statistical analysis of motivation, coopera-
tion & achievement- part iv formula for increase of val-
ue/reward with increasing size of jama’at/congregation, vis-
a-vis mutual interaction”. Science & Technology in the Islam-
ic World, vol 1, no. 4 (1983):227-235.
43
The Concept of the ‘Evil’ and the ‘Evil Eye’ in Islam

and Islamic Faith-Healing Traditions
Azher Hameed Qamar
Abstract
Evil is a power that may possess a human to commit sins. Evil is all negative, conflicting and opposing to
the all positive ‘good’. Religious descriptions of evil and good often relate it to the opposing forces led by
the Devil and God respectively where human is weak and vulnerable. Arrogance and envy are two satanic
traits that occupy human nature to deviate him from the ‘good’. Islam describes a variety of evil acts that
cause destruction, disobedience, tyranny and hopelessness in human societies. According to Islamic tradi-
tions, arrogance and envy are satanic obsessions. The evil eye is one of the evils triggered by envious self
of the human under the influence of the Evil (Satan). Humans, under the obsession of this evil, may bring
harm to their fellow men, intentionally or unintentionally. Since health and prosperity is valuable for sur-
vival, the evil eye can destroy them. Humans can overcome these obsessions only with the blessing of God
and invoking their innate righteousness. Humans can protect themselves from the harmful and destructive
effects of the evil eye, if they trust in God and seek His refuge. Islam emphasizes the Quran having healing
and protective powers, and recommends following the Islamic traditions set by the Prophet Muhammad
(SAW) and advised in Quran to gain protection and cure.
Keywords: Evil, Evil Eye, Religion, Islam
Introduction deeds of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW)2. To explain

the Islamic perspective on the belief in the evil eye and
The definition of ‘evil’ varies across cultures and reli-
recommended preventive and healing measures, I se-
gions but a general understanding of the concept ‘evil’
lected the most authentic collections of ahadith (Sahi
is “something/someone that brings harm”. Synonyms
Bukhari, Sahi Muslim, and Sunan Abu-Dawood) and
of the word ‘evil’ in several dictionaries describe it as
famous Quran translation (The Noble Quran) and in-
“wicked, malevolent, sinful, malicious, criminal, im-
terpretation (Ibn Kathir). Since I used Arabic/ Urdu
moral, harmful, and damaging”. ‘Evil’ as all negative
version of ahadith collection, for English translation, I
gives meaning to the ‘good’ as all positive. Since
used online source www.sunnah.com. To provide a bet-
health and prosperity are two valuable aspects of a
ter understanding of the content described in this sec-
peaceful human society, any harm or damage to these
tion, I interviewed (telephonic interviews) three reli-
two aspects can bring disaster and despair. Religious
gious scholars from India and Pakistan about the evil
beliefs hold a special place in societies where faith-
eye and Islamic protection and healing. Authentic Is-
healing is popular. The belief in the power of evil
lamic sources confirm the power of the evil eye that,
working and affecting the objects it falls on is universal
initiated by Satan, may overcome human beings if not
and rooted in prehistoric times1. Religions that influ-
encountered by seeking protection of Almighty God.
ence majority of the world population define evil and The fertility of the evil eye lies in the exploitation of
evil practices in their respective human-God, human- human weaknesses (like jealousy, evil suspicions and
devil and God-devil relationships. Almost all religions greed) by Satan. Islamic traditions describe the harmful
have a consensus on the power of the evil that occupies
influences of the evil eye and recommended protection
humans to influence other creations. The ‘evil eye’ is and cure.
one of the distinct forms of evil related to the belief
that a glance may have powers to inflict injury, harm Discussion
and even death upon whom it falls. Religion, as an im- Belief is “a state of mind that embodies trust and con-
portant part of culture, describes the working of the
fidence in something”3. Human beings attain this state
evil eye, its effects and recommends preventive and
of mind from the belief systems to which they belong.
curative measures. Islam is the second major religion
The belief system guides them to understand the ab-
of the world after Christianity. Islamic education and
stract and mysterious concepts related to their life in all
information is primarily based on the holy book Quran
aspects. Islam, as a belief system, describes the vulner-
and Sahi Ahadith, an authentic record of the words and
44
ability of the human in his/her mortal surroundings, the Quran comments several evil doings that Satan in-
power that evil (satan) exercises on him/her to bring spired humans to do, for example;
harm, and the methods to seek Divine (God) protec- [Shaitan (Satan)] commands you only what is evil
tion. The evil targets health and prosperity to disturb and Fahsha (sinful), and that you should say
peace and harmony and cultivate disbelief (in God). A against Allah what you know not.9
believer, who is firm in his/her faith, invokes blessing
Why do not the rabbis and the religious learned
of Almighty God to fight against the evil. The Quran men forbid them from uttering sinful words and
describes the story of Prophet Ayyub (Job) (AS) who from eating illegal things? Evil indeed is that which
invoked God’s blessing in these words; they have been performing.10
And remember Our servant Job, when he called to his Give full measure and weight in justice and reduce
Lord, "Indeed, Satan has touched me with hardship (by not the things that are due to the people, and do not
ruining my health) and torment (by ruining my commit mischief in the land, causing corruption.11
wealth)."4 And come not near to the unlawful sexual inter-
course. Verily, it is a Fahishah [i.e. anything that
Before discussing the evil eye belief in Islamic tradi- transgresses its limits (a great sin)], and an evil way
tions, a description of evil’ as depicted in Islamic (that leads one to Hell unless Allah forgives him).12
sources of knowledge will explain the evil eye belief in Shaitan (Satan) wants only to excite enmity and ha-
Islam. tred between you with intoxicants (alcoholic
The ‘Evil’, as depicted in Islamic Sources of Knowledge drinks) and gambling, and hinder you from the re-
According to Miller 5 , The Quran gives 43 different membrance of Allah.13
terms for evil and sin. He specifically mentions seven Another important aspect of the power of evil in Islam-
words describing evil; ic sources of knowledge is its limitation when com-
pared to the power of good. Satan may provoke evil in
Evil – shame, vice and wickedness many ways, but he does not hold powers to control
Darkness – ignorance, failure to acknowledge the natural phenomenon (usually named as natural evils);
thus natural destructions (like floods, earthquakes,
Almighty and turn to Him storms) are not natural evils controlled by an evil au-
Wrong-doing – wrong action resulting from unbelief thority. The Quran describes these natural destructive
powers controlled by God either as a test to mankind or
and nonacceptance of God a punishment for their wrong doings;
Error – intentional, deliberate sins No calamity befalls, but with the Leave [i.e. deci-
Offence – wrong attitude to others and injustice sion and Qadar (Divine Preordainments)] of Al-
lah.14
Disobedience – breaking God’s command, being And certainly, We shall test you with something of
unrighteous fear, hunger, loss of wealth, lives and fruits, but
give glad tidings to As-Sabirin (the patient ones,
Transgression – breaking social laws, crossing limits etc.).15
set by God And We tried them with good (blessings) and evil
The Quran describes several acts as evildoing; polythe- (calamities) in order that they might turn (to Allah's
ism, unbelief, hypocrisy, and arrogance are the greatest Obedience).16
ones. The actions that result in disobedience to God, Verily, We sent against them a violent storm of
cruelty, hatred, injustice, selfishness, greed, violence stones (which destroyed them all), except the fami-
and disharmony in the society are evil acts6. Evil is a ly of Lout (Prophet Lot).17
satanic plan that he uses to encourage human beings to And when they were seized with a violent earth-
do what Allah Almighty has forbidden. God declares quake, he (Moses) said: “O my Lord, if it had been
Your Will, You could have destroyed them and me
Satan an open enemy of human-beings 7 and Prophet
before; would You destroy us for the deeds of the
Muhammad (SAW) mentioned Satan too close to hold a foolish ones among us? It is only Your Trial by
human-being that he said, “Satan runs in the body of which You lead astray whom You will, and keep
Adam's son (The Man) as his blood circulates in it”8. It guided whom You will.18
means that Satan holds the power of the evil’ that hu-
mans cannot overcome without seeking refuge from Islam considers Man weak and vulnerable against the
God Almighty and following His commandments. The power of the evil that Satan holds and practices to ex-
45
ploit human weaknesses against God unless Man does them (mankind) will follow you, then surely I will
not recognize God, the most powerful and seek His fill Hell with you all.”26
protection and forgiveness. 19 Man has divine Satan committed jealousy and arrogance. After being
knowledge of the good and evil, and a free will to disgraced and cursed, he showed his intention to use
choose between the two paths. This worldly life is a these evils as powerful weapons against Man. He uses
test of how Man practices his free will, either in obedi- these weapons to spread distrust and insecurity among
ence of the Creator or following the evil. humans, consequently destroying peace and patience.
Verily, We have created man from Nutfah drops of Hence, jealousy and arrogance are those powerful sa-
mixed semen (discharge of man and woman), in or- tanic instincts that Satan uses to take revenge from
der to try him, so We made him hearer, seer. Veri- Man for the loss of that exalted position that Man holds
ly, We showed him the way, whether he be grateful and Satan has lost.
or ungrateful.20
The ‘Evil Eye’
And shown him the two ways (good and evil).21
He showed him what is wrong for him and what is The ‘evil eye’, one of the popular and common beliefs
right for him.22 (like sorcery), is a distinct form of evil associated with
There is no compulsion in religion. Verily, the
the belief that a glance may have powers to inflict inju-
Right Path has become distinct from the wrong ry, harm and even death to those upon whom it falls.
path.23 The immediate effects the evil eye may cause range
from misfortune to serious diseases leading to death.
Hence, Man can distinguish between evil and good Children, being weak and vulnerable, are at serious
with his/her innate knowledge. In the story of Adam risk. Mothers, before and after childbirth, are also easy
and Eve, The Quran describes arrogance and envy as victims. Problems during pregnancy, infertility, abor-
two hostile evils. When God created Adam and asked tion, birthmarks on the child, dried breasts are common
the angels to prostrate to him, only Iblis refused be- effects supposedly caused by the evil eye.27 The belief
cause of his arrogance and envy. God declared him as in the evil eye is a belief in the power of envy and jeal-
Satan, the evil, the humiliated and disgraced one. ousy that can mysteriously cause harm and destruction
And surely, We created you (your father Adam) leading despair and hopelessness in Man. Similarities
and then gave you shape (the noble shape of a hu- in the fear of the evil eye and presence of a particular
man being); then We told the angels, “Prostrate word for this belief in many languages make the con-
yourselves to Adam”, and they prostrated them- cept universal. The belief in the evil eye as a destruc-
selves, except Iblis (Satan), he refused to be of tive power triggered by envy is prehistoric and wide-
those who prostrated themselves. (Allah) said:
spread across cultures.28
“What prevented you (O Iblis) that you did not
prostrate yourself, when I commanded you?” Iblis The ‘Evil Eye’ in Scriptures
said: “I am better than him (Adam), You created
me from fire, and him You created from clay.” (Al- Looking into major religions in the world, Abrahamic
lah) said: “(O Iblis) get down from this (Paradise); religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) and Hinduism
it is not for you to be arrogant here. Get out, for you confirm the evil eye belief. In Hinduism, the evil eye
are of those humiliated and disgraced.”24 (Drishti in Sanskrit) is rooted in jealousy and most of
the harms are caused by it. Children (at birth and in
Satan, in arrogance and jealousy, vowed to lead astray
puberty) are particularly vulnerable 29 . In one of the
human beings from the right path and plant evil in their
myths, the goddess Parvati (mother of elephant-headed
hearts and lives in every way.25 He claimed that a ma-
god Ganesha), brought her new born son to god Shani,
jority of human beings will disobey God and follow the
whose evil glance burnt the Ganesha’s head and then
evil way. Then God declared Hell for those who will
god Vishnu replaced the burnt head with that of an ele-
follow Satan and engage themselves in evil doings.
phant head 30 . Another tradition is that probably the
(Iblis) said: “Because You have sent me astray, Hindu belief in the evil eye has been derived from the
surely I will sit in wait against them (human beings) third eye of god Shiva who can destroy the whole uni-
on Your Straight Path. Then I will come to them
verse with a single glance. 31 There are hymns and
from before them and behind them, from their right
and from their left, and You will not find most of charms in Vedas to get cure and protection against the
them as thankful ones (i.e. they will not be dutiful evil eye. For example, “The evil eye of the hostile-
to You).” (Allah) said (to Iblis): “Get out from this minded, and the evil-doer I have approached. Do thou,
(Paradise), disgraced and expelled. Whoever of O thousand-eyed one, watchfully destroy these! A ref-
46
uge art thou, O gangida.”32 to prostrate to Adam.41 When God expelled Satan dis-
gracefully from paradise, Satan vowed to lead the hu-
In Abrahamic religions, there are references in earliest
man beings from the right path in all possible ways.
Jewish texts describing the evil eye (ayin hara in He-
Jealousy is the first sin that was committed in heaven
brew) as a result of envy and jealousy. Ulmer, referring
and also the first one committed on earth. Iblis was
to rabbinic literature, describes evil eye as “a value
jealous of Adam in heaven, and the latter's son Qabil
concept in which a person’s ethical behaviour is con-
(Cane) was jealous of his brother Habil (Abel) on
centrated. In other instances, the evil eye is a concept
of power that enabled people to affect their surround- earth.42 Hence, envy and jealousy are the satanic ob-
sessions that overcome humans and jinn (supernatural
ings.” 33 Rabbis describe good eye (ayin tova) belong-
creatures) and result in bringing harm to someone. Sa-
ing to a humble spirit and the evil eye (ayin hara) as an
tan instigates human and jinn to make evil suggestions.
arrogant and envious spirit.34 Two examples from the
Last two chapters of the Holy Quran (chapter 113 and
Jewish text verify this belief in Judaism. First, Sarah 114) contain prayers for believers to seek refuge with
gives’ Hagar an Ayin Hara, causing her to miscarry her
God Almighty from all the evils that Satan instigates;
first pregnancy. Second, Yaakov warns his sons not to
the evil of envious ones and the evil whisperings of
be seen together so as not to incur Ayin Hara.35 The Satan.
Bible describes ‘evil eye’ as one of the evils and dark
side of human nature that occurs because of envy and Say: “I seek refuge with (Allah) the Lord of the
daybreak, From the evil of what He has created;
corrupts a man.36 Aquaro in his book ‘Death by Envy:
And from the evil of the darkening (night) as it
The Evil Eye and Envy in the Christian Tradition’ comes with its darkness; (or the moon as it sets or
quotes old and new testaments to explain the envy and goes away). And from the evil of the witchcrafts
the evil eye relationship.37 when they blow in the knots, and from the evil of
the envier when he envies.” Say: “I seek refuge
The ‘Evil Eye’ Belief in Islamic Traditions with (Allah) the Lord of mankind, The King of
Before giving Islamic perspective on the evil eye, I mankind, The Ilah (God) of mankind, from the evil
shall give a brief note about the Islamic birth rituals of the whisperer (devil who whispers evil in the
that Muslim parents perform to keep the devil and evil hearts of men) who withdraws (from his whispering
away from the child. According to hadith, Satan tries in one's heart after one remembers Allah), who
whispers in the breasts of mankind, Of jinns and
to influence with his evil even before the fetus is con-
men.”43
ceived. Therefore, on the wedding night before estab-
lishing a relation with the wife, a Muslim should say; The Quran narrates the danger of being envious and
“O Allah! Protect us from the mischief of Satan and
jealous on different occasions. For example, jealousy
keep Satan away from the children You grant us.” 38
was the cause of the first murder on earth. In the story
of Habil and Qabil, Qabil because of jealousy, mur-
Similarly, when a child is born, Satan touches the child dered Habil.44 Another example is the story of Yousaf
on both sides (except Jesus, the son of Mary. Satan (Joseph). When Yousaf told his father Yaqoob (Jacob)
failed to touch him).39 Therefore, when a child is born, about the dream he saw (the dream about his
calling Adhan (Islamic call for prayer) in the ears of prophethood), Yaqoob forbade Yousaf to describe his
the newborn is the first birth ritual that is desirable to dream to his brothers, so that Satan may not inspire
perform. The baby hears Adhan, the first words as a them to get envious to harm Yousaf45. Similarly, when
confirmation of Tauheed (oneness of God) and it keeps Yousaf invited his brothers to visit Egypt, Yaqoob ad-
Satan away who tries to harm or influence the human vised them to enter one by one from different doors to
since the beginning of life. Then Aqiqah, sacrifice of a the palace46. Yaqoob feared that the people might af-
goat in the name of Allah40and Sadaqa (charity) are fect his eleven handsome and good-looking sons with
two rituals that remove calamities and sufferings and the evil eye.47Another verse directly addresses to the
an expression of thankfulness to Allah. Prophet Muhammad (SAW) informing him about the
Islamic sources of knowledge reveal the evil eye is a evil eye that nonbelievers try to cast at him due to their
reality. Islam considers envy and jealousy as satanic extreme jealousy and hatred (Ibn Kathir, 2003);
tactics that he uses to plant evil in the hearts of the “And verily, those who disbelieve would almost
people against each other. Later it stimulates the evil make you slip with their eyes through hatredness
eye to cause harm. This is also evident from the Quran when they hear the Reminder (the Quran)”48
(as described earlier) that Satan himself was envious
and jealous of Man (Adam) when God ordered angels The Quran illustrates envy and jealousy as evils that
47
may overcome human beings be harmful for others. Put your trust in Allah if you are believers indeed.59
There are prayers in the Quran and Ahadith to seek Allah (Alone) is Sufficient for us, and He is the
refuge with Allah Almighty from the satanic tactics Best Disposer of affairs (for us).60
that attack the hearts of the people to corrupt them (e.g, And to Allah belong the best names, so invoke Him
evil whispers in the heart). by them61.
And if an evil whisper comes to you from Shaitan Therefore, following Tauheed and Tawakkul, Muslims
(Satan) then seek refuge with Allah.49 believe that the book of God has ultimate protective
and healing powers. The Quran says;
And say: “My Lord! I seek refuge with You from
the whisperings (suggestions) of the Shayatin (dev- And when I am ill, it is He who cures me.62
ils).50 And We sent down of the Quran that which is heal-
ing and mercy for the believers63.
And if an evil whisper from Shaitan (Satan) tries to
turn you away (O Muhammad) (from doing good, In addition to Sadaqa (giving charity or goat sacrific-
etc.), then seek refuge in Allah. 51 ing), the prayers stated in Quran and Ahadith are used
as incantation (rukya) or writing amulets (tawiz) for
A verse from the Quran52 is a worldwide spoken Islam-
protection and cure against the evil eye. The most basic
ic phrase (i.e Masha Allah) used to appreciate or praise
of all these treatments is to trust in one God and seek
anything or anyone. The Muslims believe that saying
refuge with Him from all evils.
Masha Allah (whatever Allah wills, will come to pass)
protects from the evil eye 53 . Other prayers, recom- Seeking Refuge with Allah
mended by the Prophet (SAW) that Muslims should say Seeking refuge with Allah is the most important aspect
while looking or touching someone/something for ap- of Islamic traditions to fight against all evils. As evils
preciation or praise are; “O Allah! Bless him” or “May come from Satan, possess powers over human and jinn
Allah blesses him/it”54. (supernatural creatures), seeking refuge with Allah pro-
Ahadith strongly establish the concept of the evil eye tects from the harmful influences of witchcraft, evil,
as a reality. Different authentic books of ahadith prove eye etc., whether they are from human or jinn. This
it as an agreed reality in all Islamic schools of thought. tradition also indicates that any prayer recited or prac-
Authentic ahadith confirm the effect of the evil eye as ticed in any way to seek refuge with other than Allah
a fact55. Umm Salama reported that Allah's Messenger Almighty (The One) is Haram (unlawful in Islam).
saw a girl whose face had black spots. He said, “She is Following are some of the prayers narrated in Ahadith
under the effect of an evil eye; so treat her with a ruqya that describe Islamic way of seeking refuge against
(incantation from Quran).”56 Ahadith describe the se- evils.
verity of the evil eye so much that “if anything would The Prophet (SAW) used to seek refuge with Allah (de-
precede the destiny it would be the influence of an evil claring it deed of Abraham) for his grandsons Hassan
eye.”57 Therefore, the evil eye can bring serious harm and Hussain and prayed in these words: “O Allah! I
to anything or anyone. Generally, it attacks the health seek Refuge with Your Perfect Words from every devil
of the valuable living beings (for example, crops, do- and from poisonous pests and from every evil, harmful,
mestic animals, human beings). Prophet Muhammad envious eye”64. When the Prophet (SAW) fell ill, Ga-
(SAW) advised specific prayers to seek refuge with Al- briel recited these verses. “In the name of Allah. He
lah against the evil eye, and to do ruqya (incantation may cure you from all kinds of illness and safeguard
from the Quran) to cure the evil influences. you from the evil of a jealous one when he feels jeal-
Protection and Cure against the Evil Eye in Islam ous and from the evil influence of eye.”65
Before Islam, Arabs used figures of animals, men and Seeking refuge with Allah gives a powerful feeling of
gods as amulets to protect themselves, but after con- security that acts like a psychological shield. The last
verting to a monotheistic religion they abandoned this two chapters of the Holy Quran (as mentioned earlier)
practice. In Islam, treatment of harmful influences of are specific prayers to seek refuge with Allah against
the evil eye is based on the concept of Tauheed (Mono- sickness, satanic obsession, witchcraft, envy and jeal-
theism – Oneness of God) and Tawakkul (trust in one ousy. Many Ahadith report these two chapters (known
God only). The Quran says; as al-Mu’awwidhatayn) as the best protection and
cure. 66 These two chapters specifically describe the
And whosoever puts his trust in Allâh, then He will dangers of darkness of ignorance and evil, magic and
suffice him.58
witchcraft, and evil thoughts and desires that destroy.67
48
The Prophet Muhammad (SAW) used to recite and do for any reason, parents should give sadaqa. Sadaqa is
rukya with last three chapters of the Quran when he fell to give something (goods, food, clothes) in the name of
ill. Allah to needy or poor around you or to sacrifice an
animal and divide meat among the poor people.
Doing Rukya (protection and cure against
Amount and object for sadaqa depends on what one
the evil eye)
can afford.72
Rukya means to recite prayers (described in Quran and
authentic Ahadith) as incantation. Many Ahadith report Sadaqa is a valued virtue in Islam. It protects from the
the use of incantation (rukya) for cure and protection evil influences, sufferings, loss and calamities. Any-
against diseases, poison, and the evil eye. Ayesha (wife how there are some traditional ways to give sadaqa
of the Holy Prophet (SAW) reported that Allah's Mes- that may be questioned if they are Islamic. Putting
senger commanded the use of incantation for curing these questions to the scholars, they describe clearly
the influence of an evil eye and Anas reported that Al- the Islamic way to give sadaqa.73
lah's Messenger granted him sanction to use incanta- Q. Some people feed the birds in the parks or on the
tion (as a cure) for the influence of the evil eye.68 How roads or free the caged birds as an act of sadaqa. Is it
to do rukya? Following hadith narrated by Ayesha de- Islamic?
scribes rukya as an Islamic healing method; A. To free the caged birds, it is a sadqa as you are let-
Whenever Allah's Apostle (peace be upon him) became ting the birds free in their natural environment where
sick, he would recite Mu'awwidhat (Surat Al-Falaq they belong. But so far to feed the birds as sadaqa is
and Surat An-Nas) and then blow his breath over his concerned; it is good only if you have not any human
body. When he became seriously ill, I used to recite around you who is hungry or needy.
(last two chapters from Quran) and rub his hands over Q. Some people take sadqa money or other things to
his body hoping for its blessings. some shrine and distribute it to the poor. Is it good?
A. It depends on the intention. If they are giving sa-
Whenever the Prophet (SAW) went to bed every night, daqa paying reverence to someone (saints, prophets,
he used to cup his hands together and blow over it after angels etc) other than Allah, it is strictly forbidden, as
reciting Surat Al-Ikhlas, Surat Al-Falaq and Surat An- it is shirk (polytheism) contrary to Tauheed and Ta-
Nas (last three chapters in Quran), and then rub his wakal.
hands over whatever parts of his body he was able to Further, scholars mention three fundamental aspects of
rub, starting with his head, face and front of his body. sadaqa;
He used to do that three times.69  It is in the name of Allah.
Therefore, recitation of certain verses from the Holy  Sadqa is a charity that must be given to the needy
Quran and prayers mentioned in Sahi Ahadith and and poor.
blowing it on the child, generally three times, is the  Sadqa is given from the halal (Islamically legal)
most common and agreed upon Islamic healing meth- source of income.
od. Rukya can also be done on water, and the effected In addition, praying to Allah for forgiveness is a virtue
person can drink that water. As children are vulnerable, that wards off evils and protects the person from sin
the parents should know this method and do it them- and loss.
selves. They can take the child to some religious teach- Tawiz (Talisman – Amulets)
er70 or pious man to do rukya.71
Using tawiz (amulet) is another religious healing tradi-
Sadaqa (something given as charity) tion to seek protection and cure against the evil eye. An
Sadaqa is a charity in the name of Allah. Money, amulet writer writes Quranic prayers on a piece of pa-
goods, or even an animal can be slaughtered as sadaqa. per or a tablet to invoke divine powers. Tawiz or talis-
It is believed that Sadaqa removes calamities and suf- man (amulets) is a pouch (normally made of leather,
fering. cloth or some metal) containing prayers written on a
piece of paper. This pouch is hanged in a string (usual-
Sadaqa is a charity in the name of Allah. Sadaqa is not ly black), and the effected person wears it around the
obligatory (like Zakat, a religious obligatory tax on neck or ties it on the arm. People using tawiz, believe
well-to-do Muslims), yet it is highly desirable accord- that it has powers to protect and cure against diseases,
ing to Quran and Sunnah. Giving sadaqa for children sufferings and misfortunes. Although a group of the
and ourselves protects us from worldly sufferings and Muslim scholars does not agree with this healing tradi-
loss. Therefore, if there is any problem with the child tion as Islamic, in the majority of Muslim world (for
49
example Muslims of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh), rukya and according to a hadith, 77 he allowed rukya
wearing tawiz is a common practice to seek protection provided that they did not contain the words of Shirk. It
against the evil, harm and destruction. There is a sig- means, there were forms of tawiz or rukya that were
nificant number of scholars who agree on using tawiz not Islamic and some people adopted them as pre-
for protection and healing, but belief in tawiz as a Islamic tradition. For example, Prophet Muhammad
source to invoke Allah’s mercy and blessing is debat- (SAW) ordered to break the strings or necklace that the
ed. In Islam, tawiz does not have powers in itself. Reli- people used to hang around the camel’s neck to ward
gious scholars have different opinions about writing off the evil eye78. Prophet Muhammad (SAW) prohibit-
and using a tawiz for protection or cure. There are two ed all pre-Islamic traditions that were based on Shirk.
important points I will discuss here. First, the Islamic He asked to seek refuge with Allah with the help of the
way of writing tawiz and second the difference of opin- Holy Quran while firmly believing in Tauheed and
ion regarding its use. Tawakal.
An Islamic Tawiz After fulfilling the Islamic requirements for an Islamic
Tawiz must include verses from the Holy Quran and Tawiz, the difference of opinion among scholars is re-
the prayers mentioned in authentic Ahadith. An Islamic garding the preference of the Islamic protective and
healer can write a tawiz only in Arabic language. My curative measures to ward off the evil eye. Scholars
discussion with religious scholars concludes that a accept rukya and sadaqa as the most authentic way of
tawiz is Islamic only if; protection and cure against diseases and evil influ-
ences. About using tawiz, one of the scholars said;
 It is written from the Quran and the prayers
mentioned in authentic Ahadith. It is not Sunnah (sayings and life of Muhammad);
 They are in Arabic only. (Some religious healers therefore we should avoid it because if it might be
write Arabic abjad 74 numerals of the verses, something preferable then it would be in practice by
scholars differ on using Arabic abjad instead the holy Prophet along with rukya and sadaqa. But as
verses) an Islamic Tawiz has Qura’nic verses, therefore is not
 Tawiz should not consist of anything that is Kufr haram. Anyhow hanging beads, wearing stones or oth-
(disbelief) or Shirk (idolatry or polytheism). er kind of amulets with a belief that they contain pow-
 The user and the tawiz witer must believe that only ers is haram.79
Allah holds the powers to protect and cure. Tawiz Other two scholars believe the Holy Prophet’s (SAW)
is just a source to get Allah’s blessing through companions used or advised tawiz; therefore tawiz is
prayers. also an effective cure and can be used along with rukya
 Tawiz must be used with respect and honour as it and sadaqa. Tawiz can be hanged around the neck or
contains verses from the Quran and Ahadith. arm. Al-Jawzīyah (2003) also reported some traditions
Therefore, tawiz must not be hanged or tied on legs that described the healing power of a tawiz when
or feet, etc. soaked in water to drink that water later. While tawiz
Using Tawiz, Islamic or Not with Quranic prayers is Islamic according to scholars,
The scholars have slightly different opinion about us- its use seems more traditional. People soak it in water
ing tawiz but the common opinion is that use of an Is- (to drink or sprinkle around later), wrap it in leather or
lamic Tawiz is not haram (forbidden), although no au- silver, hang it in blue or black thread or wear a metal
thentic hadith confirms it as a practice done by Prophet amulet with Quranic verses written on it. Nevertheless,
Muhammad (SAW). There are oral traditions that de- after Quranic incantation (rukya) and charity (sadaqa),
scribe some of the companions who used or advised Islamic amulet (tawiz) is a popular healing and protec-
the use of tawiz, but there are also ahadith that forbid tive method against evil eye practiced in Muslim socie-
wearing strings or amulets round the neck to ward off ties.
the evil eye75. Scholars commented on these ahadith Islamic faith healing purifies the soul and spiritually
and described forbidden tawiz or rukya that was not heals the body. They strengthen the firm trust in God
written or recited according to the Quran. Instead, Ar- and promote virtuous deeds (in the form of sadaqa) to
abs adopted them as pre-Islamic traditions based on counter the evil forces.
Shirk. The argument is convincing because in one of
the ahadith, there is an assurance for paradise for those
who do not practice rukya.76 But (as mentioned earli-
er), Prophet Muhammad (SAW) practiced and advised
50
9
al-Baqara, 2:169
Conclusion 10
al-Ma’idah, 5:63
11
Islamic philosophy about the evil describes all evils Hud, 11:85
12
from Satan who after being cursed vowed to lead the Al-Isra, 17:32
evils in the world. On the other hand, Man who is born
13
Al-Ma’idah, 05:91
14
At-Taghabun 64:11
with weaknesses but God granted him/her with innate 15
al-Baqara, 02:155
knowledge of good and evil to practice free will ac- 16
al- ‘Araf, 07:168
cordingly. Arrogance and jealousy are the diseases of 17
Al-Qamar, 54:34
the heart that spread like cancer when taken up by Sa- 18
Al-A’raf, 07:155
tan. He exploits the human weaknesses and thus over- 19
An-Nisa, 04:28
comes the human negative energies. Human-self 20
Al-Insan, 76:2-3
(Nafs) is inclined to evil.80 Man under the influence of 21
Al-Balad, 90:10
22
evil forces deviates from his innate good and chooses As-Shams, 91:8
23
the wrong path. The evil eye is a kind of negative en- Al-Baqarah, 2:256
24
Al-A’raf 07:11-13
ergy that emits from the human envious self and may 25
Ibn Kathir, 2003, Tafsir (Commentary on Quran) by Is-
affect others harmfully. The universality of the evil mail bin Umar bin Kathir, known as Tafsir Ibn Kathi is the
eye belief and the way different religions and cultures most famous and most widely used explanation of the Ho-
constitute it, make it hard to declare it a mere supersti- ly Quran. I am using the abridged version of this tafsir
tion. Today. this belief may not be justified scientifi- translated by Safiur-Rahman Mubarakpuri and published
cally, but as all the religions believe in good and evil as by Darussalam Publishers, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
two opposing powers, they also believes that ‘mysteri- 26
Al-A’raf, 07:16-18
ous’ does exist and it is beyond human powers. Islam, 27
Mary Ayers, Mother-Infant Attachment and Psychoanaly-
in this respect, identifies human as a weak creature oc- sis: The Eyes of Shame. (Hove: Brunner-Routledge, 2003)
28
cupied with ‘desires’ but also the best of creation Helmut Schoeck, The Evil Eye: Forms and Dynamics of a
Universal Superstition. In Alan Dundes (Ed.), The Evil
blessed with knowledge and wisdom to recognize Al-
Eye: A Casebook. (Madison, Wis: University of Wiscon-
mighty God and win over the evil by turning to his sin Press, 1992)192-200.
Lord. To maintain peace in human societies, Islam dis- 29
Stewart. Woodburne, The Evil Eye in South Indian Folk-
courages arrogance and envy and promotes humility lore. In Alan Dundes (Ed.), The Evil Eye: A Casebook.
and goodwill. The protective and curative tactics (Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992) 55-
against the evil eye, as advised in Islamic traditions, 65
30
indicates two fundamental components of the basic Sunil Sehgal, Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, (New Delhi:
Islamic philosophy; first, Tauheed, i.e., none has the Sarup & Sons, 1999); Alex Carmine, Dan Brown's "The
right to be worshipped but He (the One God), the Ever Lost Symbol": The Ultimate Unauthorized and Independ-
Living, the One Who sustains and protects all that ex- ent Reading Guide. (London: Punked Books, 2009).
31
Migene Gonzalez-Wippler, The Complete Book of Amulets
ists81 and second, Tawakal, i.e., Allah is sufficient, and & Talismans. Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn Worldwide,
when Allah helps, none can overcome.82 2003
32
References and Endnotes Maurice Bloomfield, Hymns of the Atharva-Veda. (New
Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 1990), 39
33
1 Rivka Ulmer, The evil eye in the Bible and in rabbinic
Frederick Thomas Elworthy, The Evil Eye: The Classic
literature, (Hoboken, N.J.: KTAV Pub. House, 1994), 5.
Account of an Ancient Superstition. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover 34
Shumel Goldin, Unlocking the Torah Text: An In-depth
Publications, 2004. Journey Into the Weekly Parsha. (Shmot. Jerusalem:
2
Peace be upon him Gefen Books, 2010)
3
Douglas, Neil and Wykowski, Terry. From belief to 35
Yehoshua Karsh, and Benzion. Bamberger, “Ask The
knowledge: achieving and sustaining an adaptive culture
Rabbi”. Edited by Moshe Newman. Ohr Somayach Inter-
in organizations. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2011), 27.
national. Issue # 51. 1995. Retrieved from
4
Al Qur’an, Şād, 38:41 http://ohr.edu/ask/ask051.pdf
5
Roland Miller, Muslims and the Gospel: bridging the gap: 36
Mathew 6:23 [online]
a reflection on Christian sharing. (Lutheran University http://www.blueletterbible.org/Bible.cfm?b=Mat&c=6&t=KJV#comm/23 ; Luke 11:34
Press, 2005), 54-55. [online] http://www.blueletterbible.org/Bible.cfm?b=Luk&c=11&v=1&t=KJV; James 3:16
6
Ibid. [online] http://www.blueletterbible.org/Bible.cfm?b=Jam&c=3&t=KJV; Mark 7:22-23
7
Al-Baqara, 2:208; Al-A’raf 7:22 [online] http://www.blueletterbible.org/Bible.cfm?b=Mar&c=7&t=KJV#comm/22
8
Imam Bukhari, Sahih Bukhari, Good Manners and Form
(Al-Adab), Volume 8, Book 73, Number 238
51
37
George Robert Aquaro, Death by Envy: The Evil Eye and 62
Ash-Shu’ara, 26:80
63
Envy in the Christian Tradition. (Lincoln, NE: iUniverse, Al-Isra, 17:82
2004). 64
Sahih Bukhari, “Prophets,” Volume 4, Book 55, Number
38
Sahih Bukhari, “Wedlock,” Marriage (Nikaah), Volume 7, 590
Book 62, Number 94. 65
Sahih Muslim, T”he Book on Salutations and Greetings.”
39
Sahih Bukhari, “Beginning of Creation”, Volume 4, Book Book 26, Number 5424
54, Number 506; Sahih Muslim, “The Book Pertaining to 66
Ibn Kathir, Ismail ibn Umer. Tafsir ibn Kathir. Translated
the Excellent Qualities of the Holy Prophet (SAW) and His by Safi ur Rehman Al-Mubarakpuri. Riyadh: Darussalam,
Companions.” Book 30, Number 5838 2003.
40
Sahih Bukhari, “Sacrifice on Occasion of Birth”, Volume 67
Ali, 2002.
7, Book 66, Number 380. 68
Sahih Muslim, “The Book on Salutations and Greetings.”
41
Ibn Kathir, Ismail ibn Umer. Tafsir ibn Kathir. Translated Book 26, Number 5445
by Safi ur Rehman Al-Mubarakpuri. Riyadh: Darussalam, 69
Sahih Bukhari, “Virtues of the Qur'an”, Volume 6, Book
2003 61, Number 35-36
42 70
Ibid. Imam ibn-e-Qayyim Al-Jawziyah, Healing with the Medi-
43
Al-falaq, 113 and Al-Nas 114 cine of the Prophet. Riyadh, KSA: Darussalam, 2003.
44 71
And (O Muhammad ) recite to them (the Jews) the story of I. E. Zaheer, T. Qasmi and M. Noor-ul-Mustafa, personal
the two sons of Adam [Habil (Abel) and Qabil (Cain)] in communication, April 7 & 13, 2011
72
truth; when each offered a sacrifice (to Allah), it was ac- Ibid.
73
cepted from the one but not from the other. The latter said Ibid.
to the former: “I will surely kill you.” The former said: 74
Each Arabic alphabet has a numerical value called as “ab-
“Verily, Allah accepts only from those who are Al- jad”. Patrick R. Bennett, Comparative Semitic Linguistics:
Muttaqun (the pious)”. (Al-Ma’idah, 5:27) A Manual. (Eisenbrauns, 1998)
45
He (the father) said: “O my son! Relate not your vision to 75
Sunan Abu-Dawud, “Purification,” Book 1, Number 36
your brothers, lest they arrange a plot against you. Verily! 76
Sahih Bukhari, “Medicine,” Volume 7, Book 71, Number
Shaitan (Satan) is to man an open enemy!” (Yusuf, 12:5) 648
46
And he said: “O my sons! Do not enter by one gate, but 77
enter by different gates, and I cannot avail you against Al- Book 26, Number 5457
lah at all. Verily! The decision rests only with Allah. In 78
Sahih Muslim, “The Book Pertaining to Clothes and Deco-
Him, I put my trust and let all those that trust, put their ration.” Book 24, Number 5280
trust in Him.” (Yusuf, 12:67) 79
I. E. Zaheer, personal communication, April 13, 2011
47 80
Ibn Kathir, Ismail ibn Umer. Tafsir ibn Kathir. Translated Yusuf, 12:53
81
by Safi ur Rehman Al-Mubarakpuri. Riyadh: Darussalam, Al-Baqara, 02:255
82
2003 Al-i-Imran, 3:160; At-Tawbah 9:129.
48
Al-Qalam, 68:51
49
Al-A’raf 7:200
50
Al-Mu’minun, 23:97
51
Fussilat,, 41:36
52
“That which Allah wills (will come to pass)! There is no
power but with Allah” (Al-Kahf, 18:39)
53
Ibn Kathir, Ismail ibn Umer. Tafsir ibn Kathir. Translated
by Safi ur Rehman Al-Mubarakpuri. Riyadh: Darussalam,
2003
54
Al-Jawziyah, Imam Ibn Qayyim. Healing with the Medi-
cine of the Prophet. Riyadh, KSA: Darussalam, 2003.
55
Bukhari, “Medicine,” Volume 7, Book 71, Number 631;
Book 26, Number 5426.
56
Sahih Bukhari, “Medicine,” Volume 7, Book 71, Number
635; Sahih Muslim, “The Book on Salutations and Greet-
ings.” Book 26, Number 5450
57
Book 26, Number 5702
58
At-Talaq,, 65:3
59
Al-Ma’idah, 05:23
60
Al-i-Imran 03:173
61
Al-A’raf, 07:180
52
Abu Dawood, Sulayman ibn al-Ashath, and Ahmad Hasan.
Sunan Abu Dawood. Vol. 1, Lahore, Pakistan: Darulislam,
2006.
Ali, Abdullah yousaf.The Meaning of the Holy QurảN.
Beltsville, Md: Amana Publications, 2002.
Al-Jawziyah, Imam Ibn Qayyim. Healing with the Medicine
of the Prophet. Riyadh, KSA: Darussalam, 2003.
Aquaro, George Robert. Death by Envy: The Evil Eye and
Envy in the Christian Tradition. Lincoln, NE: iUniverse,
2004.
Ayers, Mary. Mother-Infant Attachment and Psychoanaly-
sis: The Eyes of Shame. Hove: Brunner-Routledge, 2003.
Bennett, Patrick R. Comparative Semitic Linguistics: A
Manual. Eisenbrauns, 1998.
Bloomfield, Maurice. Hymns of the Atharva-Veda. New
Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 1990.
Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Ismail. Sahih Bukhari [in Arabic-
Urdu].Translated by M. Dawood Raz. New Delhi: Jamiat
Ahl-e-Hadith Hind, 2004.
Carmine, Alex. Dan Brown's "The Lost Symbol": The Ulti-
mate Unauthorized and Independent Reading Guide. Lon-
don: Punked Books, 2009.
Douglas, Neil and Wykowski, Terry. From belief to
knowledge: achieving and sustaining an adaptive culture in
organizations. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2011
Elworthy, Frederick Thomas. The evil eye: the classic ac-
count of an ancient superstition. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Pub-
lications, 2004
Goldin, Shmuel. Unlocking the Torah Text: An In-depth
Journey Into the Weekly Parsha: Shmot. Jerusalem: Gefen
Books, 2010
Gonzalez-Wippler, Migene. The Complete Book of Amulets
& Talismans. Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn Worldwide, 2003
Ibn Kathir, Ismail ibn Umer. Tafsir ibn Kathir. Translated by
Safi ur Rehman Al-Mubarakpuri. Riyadh: Darussalam, 2003
Karsh, Yehoshua and Bamberger, Benzion. Ask The Rabbi.
Edited by Moshe Newman. Ohr Somayach International.
Issue # 51. 1995. Retrieved from
http://ohr.edu/ask/ask051.pdf
Miller, Roland. Muslims and the Gospel: bridging the gap: a
reflection on Christian sharing. Lutheran University Press,
2005
Muslim, ibn al-Hajjaj. Sahi Muslim. Translated by Waheed
ul-Zaman (Arabic/Urdu), Lahore: Khalid Ihsan Publishers,
2004
Sehgal, Sunil. Encyclopaedia of Hinduism. New Delhi:
Sarup & Sons, 1999
Ulmer, Rivka. The evil eye in the Bible and in rabbinic liter-
ature. Hoboken, N.J.: KTAV Pub. House, 1994
Woodburne, Stewart. The Evil Eye in South Indian Folklore.
In Alan Dundes (Ed.), The Evil Eye: A Casebook. (pp. 55-
65). Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992
53
Taubat-un-Nasooh: Religious implications among families of 19th century Ashrafia

of colonial India
Gull-i-Hina
Gul-i-Saba
Abstract
Nasooh starts the discussion on religious matters as is the trend in traditional Muslim families of
Ashraf. His way of thinking had already seen a sea change. The reason behind this mental trans-
formation is his dream, but after observing the spoiled ways of his home he did not mention these
religious issues in front of his siblings. The character of Nasooh as the head of the family of Ash-
rafia, represented the conventional school of thought. Nazir Ahmed highlighted the socio-
political circumstances of Ashrafia and their religious state of mind, doubts and misunderstand-
ing of the youth of the Ashrafia about religion in those times.
Keywords: Colonial India, Conventional and Liberal Ashrafia, Religious
Introduction the family. They decide to talk to the children; he to

the sons; she to the daughters. The two younger sons
Novel Taubat-un-Nasooh (The Penitence of Nasooh,
and the younger of the two daughters fall easily in line.
1877)1 not only has a symbolic religious theme but also
The entire atmosphere of the household is soon trans-
represents the highly cultured society of Delhi during
formed. The playful pastimes of the idle rich are re-
the nineteenth century, in the context of the tussle be-
placed by prayers at regular hours and other religious
tween conventional and liberal Ashrafia.The character
chores.
of Nasooh represents the conventional element while
the character of Kaleem is reflective of the liberal Character of Nasooh : Critique on Liberal Attitudes
stream among the Ashrafia. Nazir Ahmed depicts the
Nazir Ahmed painted the character of Nasooh as the
evil of bad upbringing of children and shows the ne-
representative of the conventional class of Ashrafia.
cessity of careful training and discipline in early years.2
After the mental makeover, Nasooh was not only con-
The ensuing conflict between Nasooh and Kaleem is a
fined to pray and fast but also as a husband, father and
contradiction between two tendencies or two attitudes
common man emerged as a noble human being. Previ-
in the collective character of the north Indian Muslims.
ously, he was such an infuriating personality that eve-
The collective identity the Muslims purport to have,
ryone at home whether young or old thought of him as
harbours a Nasooh in it as well as a Kaleem. At any
a tyrant even on trivial issues. His wife and kids used
given time, one may begin to dominate the other with-
to bear the brunt of his harshness. This conduct of his
out reaching a resolution. This conflict is at the heart of
kept the house uncertain and in a tumult. After his ill-
Taubat-un-Nasooh and the manner in which the novel
ness, the people at home were terrified, expecting that
has recaptured and dramatised it, makes this book one
he would become even more irritable and stubborn, but
of the seminal narratives of the nineteenth century In-
after recovery from the illness the obverse happened
dia and representative of the Ashrafia.
and he was transformed into a humble and noble soul.4
The story opens with a dangerous epidemic of cholera The effectiveness of the novel is also enhanced be-
raging in Delhi. Among its countless victims is Na- cause it makes us aware about the true values of Islam
sooh. In spite of all the care he takes to avoid the dis- intend to promote nobility and shunning sinfulness and
ease, Nasooh himself becomes infected. Under the in- profligacy. As a matter of fact, the novel’s religious
fluence of a sedative, Nasooh falls into a deep slumber. implication is extraordinary and to present the religion
In a dream he meets his father who recounts in vivid in a social context is a unique idea for the representa-
detail all that befell him after he departed this earth, tion of Ashraf.
including the grilling he had to face for his sins. Horri-
Nasooh starts the discussion on religious matters as is
fied, Nasooh awakes as a born-again Muslim and
the trend in the traditional Muslim families of Ashraf.
morphs into a religious zealot3. He confides his dream
His way of thinking had already seen a sea change. The
to his wife Fahmidah and enlists her support to reform
54
reason behind this mental transformation is his dream, cracks, do away with all obstructions, to remove all
but after observing the spoiled ways of his home he did defects and eliminate all blemishes.
not mention these religious issues in front of his sib-
lings. The character of Nasooh as the head of the fami- One very dangerous aberration present in my house is
ly of Ashrafia, represented the conventional school of that I, and my subjects, that is, all of you, have been
thought. Nazir Ahmed highlighted the socio-political bent upon rebelling against the King of Both the
circumstances of Ashrafia and their religious state of Worlds, and the homage that must be paid to Him lies
mind, doubts and misunderstanding of the youth of the overdue through default. The homage that we are re-
Ashrafia about the religion in those times. quired to pay, I see, is quite light and lenient. Had we
so desired, no instalment need have been overdue and
Through his letter, Nasooh expressed his own views to
the required tribute paid into the treasury on time,
Kaleem:
without any hardship being incurred. The lapse of
My beloved son, which we are guilty in this respect cannot be reasona-
May Allah guide you along the righteous path! bly justified. There are now two courses of action pos-
sible: either we make good all of the overdue homage,
“I sent for you first through Aleem and then through ask for forgiveness and resolve not to repeat the lapse,
Rasoolan. You neither came nor sent word why you or we confront the sovereign, fight against Him and if
would not, from which it is apparent that you do not possible free ourselves from His bondage.
care for me and attach no importance to my instruc- The might of the Power Royal and our own weakness
tions. In my view there can be no preoccupation so are quite apparent. We do not count for much in this
urgent that it can serve as a reason for a son not to respect. We have the examples of powerful and mighty
obey his father's summons. Still, if there was an urgen- despots like Fir’on and Namrood, Shadad, Hamaan
cy which took precedence over my call, it was your and Qaroon. When they rebelled, they were reduced to
duty to explain it to me to my satisfaction, not only be- naught. There is thus no alternative to obedience and
cause I am your father and you are my son, but also submission. Believing you to be the most distinguished
because the norms of civilized living and social con- and senior most among the subjects in my realm, I had
duct require it. You cannot say you are ignorant of the called you in order to discuss the situation with you.
rules and regulations that underlie the running of the From your refusal to comply it is obvious that you
world's business. Every house has a master, every lo- have no fear of authority… My involvement and in-
cality has a chief, every bazaar has a supervisor, every struction must doubtless seem to you unjustified and
city has an administrator, every kingdom has a king, improper. But if you fairly compare your responsibility
every army has a commander-in-chief, every task has a with mine, you will realise your mistake. The condi-
responsible officer, and every sect has a head. In short tions to which I wish to subject your conduct are exact-
every house is a small kingdom and the senior inmate ly those from which I do not allow exception to myself
of the house is its king and the others in the house are or to anyone else. Young men of your age sometimes
his subjects. If negligence and malpractice on the part have doubts about religion. This is not a vice. Doubts
of the ruler of a country leads to its disorder then I are evidence of the search in attainment: One who
must say this house is in bad shape. The blame for this seeks, finds. If you have such doubts, I am here to clear
attaches to me and I confess with great sorrow that I them. As far as I know the principles of religion are so
have hitherto been a very unconcerned and uninformed true, definite and eternal that there can be no vacilla-
ruler. This has ruined my country and shattered my tion or refusal concerning them. However, from the
rule. My ignorance has not only impaired my authority very beginning of consciousness we have been leading
but has also reduced the subjects to such a wretched a life of neglect, laziness and procrastination and of
state that there is not much hope of their redemption. opposition and disobedience to the dictates of God
Just as minor nawabs and rajwadas are answerable to Almighty. Sinning and guilty living have become our
the Ruler of the time for misrule in their respective ter- second nature…from this and no other consideration,
ritories, and just as they are punished for such misrule, what would you have lost? You have at the very outset
so was Wajid Ali Shah deprived of his kingdom and the displayed a degree of stubbornness, which I had not
ruler of Tonk was dethroned. I too am answerable to expected even towards the end. I am not unaware of
the Lord of the both Worlds for order in my house. See- the difficulties that I must face. If it were possible for
ing others punished (for such a lapse), I am now truly me to give up the idea (of reforming the family) I
and fully warned (of the consequences), and I am fully would not even have talked about it. But I am aware
resolved (in the kingdom that is my house) to plug all that I am no different from other men in that I must die
55
one day. I was close enough to death when I contract- Ashrafia towards the so-called Azad khayal young
ed cholera recently. But miraculously God gave me a Ashrafia. When he entered his room, apart from the
new lease of life. Still, who can live forever? Should usual paraphernalia of items of luxury, he found so
one survive to doomsday, he too must die on that day many books in the book shelf. But all books whether in
just as death is inevitable, it is likewise certain that I Urdu or Persian, were almost similar in content: false
will have to answer for my actions and deeds before stories, inanities, vulgar themes, obscene implications,
God. Not just for my deeds but for those of all of you. I in short, everything that characterised them were im-
have therefore no choice but to transform the way you moral and brazen. When Nasooh considered the beauti-
and I, and all of us live. Had you come to me and had ful binding of the books, their fine calligraphy, the
we discussed the matter among ourselves, I would quality of paper, the beauty of language and the excel-
have spoken to you in a certain way after ascertaining lence of writing, the books appeared to him to be a
your views. Now I do not know which of the things I treasure trove. But as far as their content and substance
have written is acceptable to you and which you find were concerned, every book appeared to be fit for
unacceptable. I consider it pointless and of no use to burning. He gathered the whole lot in a pile and set fire
write further. I have written down whatever was in my to them. When Nasooh wants to justify his book- burn-
mind. I do not require an answer from you for two rea- ing frenzy, he describes these books, as more danger-
sons. Firstly I cannot make a demand, knowing it will ous than snakes, and the proceeds from their sale
be fruitless and ineffectual. Secondly, there is only one haraam (illegal), like stolen or looted goods. He de-
answer that can satisfy me, which is that you accept clares that the devil has put his mark over Kaleem and
my conditions. In order that I may save myself from declared this collection as a work of a savage. He burnt
being penalised in the life hereafter, I will not allow the books Kuliyat-e-Aatish, Diwan-e-Sharar, Diwan of
myself to defer to temporary, worldly relationships. Mir Dard and Diwan-e-Sa’adi. All these books did not
This is my attempt of the last resort and I pray to Al- Nasooh’s new found conventional ideas.
lah, supplicating that I may not need to have resort to
Leaving his home, Kaleem sets off for Mirza Zahirdar
this measure.5
Baig's 9 house without any forethought, much like a
After receiving this letter, Kaleem came to his father willful horse returning to his stable. Mirza’s facade had
and announced his rebellion by saying that he had no kept him in the dark about the real Mirza to such a de-
right to interfere in their personal matters. Freedom is gree that Kaleem believed him to be more of a well-
their right from birth. After the threat of father that wisher and friend to him than his own parents, brothers
whoever fails to disobey Allah's command will no and sisters. The trust he put in him, without ever hav-
longer have the right to stay in his home, the son got ing experienced or tested the reality behind his pre-
ready to leave the house. Nasooh on this point showed tences, a wise man would hesitate to place in a friend
his firmness and did not stop Kaleem from leaving.6 of long standing and proven loyalty.
On previous occasions whenever Kaleem had left
The fact of the matter was that Kaleem was totally de-
home in anger, it was due to a quarrel over food,
ficient in his understanding of men. He was under a
clothes, money or differences with his mother or sib-
greater delusion about himself than about Mirza. He
lings. This time it was over religion, not over money,
thought he was so highly endowed that all the princely
with his father and not with his brothers and sisters.
courts in the country were waiting for the opportunity
Kaleem’s situation, and how different it was from days
to spread the red carpet for him, whereas the reality
gone by was so aptly described by Nazir Ahmed: “This
was that innumerable talented persons were going
time, too, he left the house with the expectation that
round at the time seeking employment, without much
even before he reached the end of the lane, servants
success. Kaleem had persuaded himself that he had
would come running after him; With this hope in his
only to step into a principality, for its prince himself to
heart, he must have looked back over his shoulder
welcome his arrival with great fervour.
hundreds of times, on his way to his friend Mirza Za-
hirdaar Baig. However, here he was wrong.”7 When he left home he was quite empty handed, but in
his imagination he was about to acquire great wealth.
As Naeemah had said, except for Kaleem, the entire He trudged on his two legs, but under the delusion that
household had undergone a total transformation. The a gigantic elephant fitted with a royal howdah was on
mother was no longer the mother of former days, The its way for him to ride. On one hand was a city like
father was quite different from what he used to be.8 Delhi, and on the other, a spendthrifty and short-
The scene of burning the books in the room of Kaleem sighted man like Kaleem, with a windfall of easy mon-
is also the reflection of the mindset of the conventional ey. What followed was therefore no surprise. In no
56
time at all flooring and carpeting chandeliers and sorts, it would be wrong to believe that I got a fill of
lamps, furniture and fixtures, servants and helpers, all what I deserved. If my misdeeds added up to a measure
were installed. A mushaira was arranged for the very of thousand than my punishment amounted to no more
next day. It was to be followed by a spell of dance. All than a measure of one.”
Kaleem's old friends and acquaintances received invi-
About the matter of Nasooh’s daughter, Nazir Ahmed
tations to attend, even Mirza Zahirdaar Baig! Mirza
tries to explore the different dimensions of young la-
was devoid of any sense of shame to such a degree that
dies from the families of Ashraf. The ladies in the ex-
he came running as soon as he got wind of the devel-
tremely conservative society of the nineteenth century
opments. Kaleem on his part proved to be such a sim-
were unaware of the cultural uplift and entertainment
pleton, that once again he received him with open
which was quite common for the women in the West.
arms, despite having been recently deceived blatantly
But with his sophisticated vision he did not let Saleha
by him.
go beyond the spoiled and conflicted and other wom-
Gradually the demand for settling the dues intensified anly traits. He let Kaleem go beyond the ways of a
from all sides: Kaleem awoke from his stupor only spoiled young man because the youth of that time was
when he was reduced to selling goods that he had just the victim of new and old ways. Nazir Ahmed's sophis-
bought, in some cases without their having been used tication and social consciousness is also proved from
at all. But by now it was already too late. As usually the fact that he presented Naeemah as a married girl
happens under such circumstances, his friends stopped who after quarrelling with her in-laws came back to her
visiting him. The servants absented themselves. Those parents. In our society, unmarried girls are very strictly
that remained had become so arrogant due to non- monitored. In front of her parents, Naeema like the
payment of their salary, that not only had they stopped lady in an English novel, could not display rudeness
working, they had even taken over as their own those and boldness. Besides this, it was not extraordinary to
of Kaleem’s belongings which were in their care while slap a girl on which Naeema would have protested.
they were in his service.
Kaleem as the Representative of Azad Khayal/Free
That was no such time when two or three creditors Minded Youth of Ashrafia
were not parked at the door. Under the circumstances,
Nazir Ahmed presented the character of Kaleem as the
Kaleem wanted to slip away from the house. But his
representative of that wayward young generation, who
servants, who were now his enemies, exposed his
appears to be an Azad khayal (liberal) of that age and
plans. As soon as he left the house disguised as a serv-
his opinions may well have been the voice of the liber-
ant, he fell into the clutches of the bailiffs of the court.
al school of thought. Nazir Ahmed through the charac-
The heedless man now learnt that several ex parte de-
ter of Kaleem criticized the liberal and broadminded
crees were under simultaneous execution against him.
youth of the nineteenth century Ashrafia. He exposed
The night Kaleem spent in the custody of his captors
the negative aspects of modern norms, which were
was so intolerable that he recalled the night he had
prevailing like bad sores among the new generation
spent in Zahirdaar Baig's mosque with longing.
and caused negligence to religious obligations and so-
I wonder who I am and to whom I write this letter. And cial norms. 10 After the war of 1857, although the eco-
I expect you will wonder more than I when you receive nomic condition of the Muslims was destroyed but
it. After such impudence, such disobedience, such bra- their social structure did not change by much. The
zenness, so much opposition, that this good for noth- ways of the Ashraf and nobility remained the same;
ing, wicked rogue, deserving of the punishment of their princely airs and splurging in a royal manner re-
death, disgrace to the family, bringer of a bad name to mained the same as in the past. Kaleem also represent-
good people, has been guilty of, neither I nor any one ed the light-minded young generation of the Ashafia
else can claim that I have a right to call myself your who did not take part in constructive activities. In the
son. Thus this letter is neither a letter, nor is it from a chapter nine, Kaleem’s Khilwat Khana (the private
son, nor again is it addressed to a father. It is a message abode) and Ishrat Manzil (the pleasure house) are de-
of apology, an admission (of guilt), a document of pen- scribed11 in a manner that how they spend their time in
itence, and a supplication for forgiveness, a confession leisure.
of repentance and a request for help, from a sinful, cru-
The character of Kaleem also reflects non-serious atti-
el, destitute Kaleem addressed to a kind, merciful in
tude of the nineteenth century youth who took pride in
the extreme, virtuous, harmless, benefactor. Although I
their frivolous leisure pastimes like chess, clique, kite
have reached a state of base notoriety, been affected by
flying and pigeons. Nasooh introduced Kaleem in such
ills of various kinds, subjected to degradations of all
57
a way during his conversation with Fehmeedah before the conventional lifestyle of the Ashrafia, Kaleem’s
the beginning of his amendatory struggle: “See him, reaction was so discourteous and harsh to his younger
who remains stiff like the flour of beam. He has be- brother that he said: “I understand that father has a
come muscle of fantail while being the human being fault in his brain. I was not in favour of that medicine
flaunts so much.”12 About the religious obligations of prescribed by the doctor that has affected his brain
the Nasooh, Kaleem condemns the attitude of his father badly and he has become insane”.14 When his mother
and dismisses his religious enthusiasm as that of mul- tried to make him cognizant of the difference between
lahs, which to him is deplorable. He responded to the sin and virtue, he replied: “This is a new issue of beat-
religious ideology of Nasooh and said to him: “I am ing and teaching an old parrot, I can myself recognise
aware that since some time past now, you have been what is good and what is bad for me, I am not a kid,
wanting to introduce new procedures, new regulations please no one should try to interfere in the affairs of
and new ways in our home in the name of faith and my life.”15
religion and the importance you attach to the effort is
When Nasooh summons him for a meeting16, Kaleem
not unknown to me or anyone else living in the house.
left home. But instead of offering him shelter, his
Everyone in the house has realized that he or she can-
friend, Mirza Zahirdar Baig17, hands him over to the
not oppose the new arrangements and continue to live
police as a thief. Upon learning his identity the police
in the house at the same time. I tried my best therefore
officer hands him back to his father. But when Nasooh
to avoid having to express my opposition to your plans.
tried to counsel him and take him home, Kaleem bolted
But your insistence has now forced that situation on
again. Having run into debt and jailed for default
me. Now I must tell you perforce that I was opposed of
Kaleem writes to Nasooh for money. The dues were
your agenda from the very beginning. My evasion was
promptly paid. After being released from jail, Kaleem
sufficient to make my views known. I cannot change my
goes to Daulatabad, a native state, to seek his fortune.
lifestyle by a hair’s breath. If I were to surrender my
There he enlists in the security force. Kaleem is
freedom of thought to force and coercion then cursed
brought home after suffering serious injury in a battle.
be my lack of courage and detested be my vaunted
His condition worsens and he breathes his last. But,
sense of honor. I don’t question your right to make any
just before his life ends, he shows a sudden surge of
arrangements you wish to make in the house. But those
energy and expresses contrite penitence for his sinful
arrangements are binding on only those who consider
life.18
them to be reasonable or those who do not have the
power to oppose them. Since I do not belong in either Hence Kaleem is the representative of such a society,
of these categories, I considered it prudent to leave in which a mental stress takes place owing to disregard
home.” He further said to his father “I am not so fool- for values and customs. Kaleem and the similarly edu-
ish as to accuse you of unkindness. You say what you cated youngsters were unequipped to deal with compli-
consider to be in my best interest. Nevertheless, please cations of life. Most of them gradually set themselves
forgive my impertinence in saying that I do not consid- free from the religious and social values. Indulging in
ered myself to be in need of education and instruction. self-praise and lack of discipline was second nature to
As for going back home, I can only do so on the condi- them. Kaleem is a victim of social complications. He
tion that you promise not to have anything to do with looked down upon the lower class people of the society
my activities… be they (in your opinion) virtuous or and didn’t like his father socialising with them or offer-
evil, good or bad.”13 ing prayers with them. He makes fun of Muslims with
regard to their religious obligations. In short, Kalim is
Kalim develops a problem with his father’s attitude
a difficult ‘character’. He is a strange mix of good and
because of his rootedness in the cultural ethos, and he
evil. He had a first-class mind and was a man of wide
describes himself to be so deeply embedded in the
reading, literary taste and a gifted poet. He could brook
norms of that culture that he cannot get himself to
no criticism and was of a very independent nature, yet
change. In his character, self-praise and self-
he had allowed himself to become financially depend-
centeredness were prominent, which was symbolic of
ent on his father. We hear that he was frequently in
the youngsters of the new educated class but this gen-
need of money, that his friends were degenerate, idle,
eration was accordingly oblivious of religious and so-
good-for-nothing fellows, and so forth.19
cial standards of the Muslims society. Kalim, as repre-
sentative of this new generation thinks of himself as
superior, open-minded and arrogant. Even when his
father tried to atone his children after his recovery from
a disease and calls Kalim to modify his ways and adopt
58
Naeemah as a Representative of a Free Minded

Ashrafia Female Nash he promised that: “If I have still life ahead and find
some leisure time then Inshallah I will present the readers
Naeemah is a representative of the young and fashion- another book next year and that story will be presented in
able among the female Ashrafia folks. She was the el- that book.”According to this project, he published Tobat-
der daughter of Nasooh, and a spoiled child given to un-Nasooh in 1873 and in the same year he presented it
stubbornness and flaunting. And like Kaleem she is for the government prize. Its first edition was published in
open-minded and free-spirited but as she is a female Agra but the strange thing about it was that there was tre-
from decent family, therefore, her reluctance and mendous contradiction in this publication. In Hayat-e-
spoiled nature is confined within the four walls of the Nazir, there is only indication of place of publication as
house. However, Kaleem being from the opposite gen- Azam Garh. In book Dastan-e-Tareekh-e-Urdu the year of
publication of Tobat-un-Nasooh is mentioned as 1877. In
der, both his positive and negative traits could be seen
recently published books and columns the year of publica-
within and outside the house. Her mother was respon- tion written is also wrong. For example, in a column of
sible for spoiling her and her rudeness also destroyed ‘Urdu Nama’ second edition by Begum Shaista, the com-
her marital life as she could not adjust with her in-laws. plete list of the publication of Deputy Nazeer Ahmed, the
She was not in touch with religion and religious obliga- date of publication of Tobat-un-Nasooh in the twelfth line
tions. One day, in the morning she handed her five- is 1877. Dr Syed Latif in the thesis of his PhD, ‘Rattan
month old baby to her younger sister Hameedah who Nath Sarshar Ki Novel Nigari’, has written 1877 as the
went on offering prayers as time was running short. date of publication of Tobat-un-Nasooh. Professor Akhter
The child started crying; as Naeemah heard his voice in his column ‘Fun Novel Nigari’ and Nazeer Ahmad
she ran to him and saw Hameedah offering her prayers. Dehlavi, the place where he has given the list of Nazeer
Naeemah pushed Hameedah so hard that she fell down, Ahmad novels, indicated 1866 as the year of publication
for Tobat-un-Nasooh. Dr Sohail Bukhari writes that To-
and bleeding profusely from nose. In the meantime her bat-un-Nasooh was written in 1877. In 1873, when Tobat-
mother came and Naeemah started saying: “She is so un-Nasooh was presented for the government prize, Mr
careless, I handed her the child and went over to wash Campson as the Mayor of North and West Province, wrote
my hands, she couldn’t take care of the child, after all, detailed comments on it and referred it to the government
and I had n’t gone to die in the well. She went off to for first prize. This commentary was published in 1874 as
offer prayers leaving the child crying; when I came 37 reminders in the edition of the government gazette and
back I softly placed my hand on her shoulder and she at the end of that the date written is 1873. Sir William
fell down. When the mother asked Hameedah, she told Mayor, as lieutenant governor of north and western prov-
her the importance of prayer and said: “What one can ince, announced a prize for it with a strong liking, and the
date written on that is 17 January 1874. In the initial edi-
do if the house is like hell, we were thrown in the well
tions of Tobat-un-Nasooh, the detailed commentary of Mr
blindly. Naeemah is suffering from un-socialized dis- Kampson and William Mayor has been published in gov-
turbance of conduct.20 ernment gazette. Professor Garsan De tasi also indicated
In the sixth chapter, her cousin Saleha came to recon- Tobat-un-Nasooh in his address of 1874. This has been
cile her on the request of her mother. Naeemah is deep- proved from the creative effort done by Dr Mohammad
Sadiq that the extract of Nazeer Ahmed, knowledge is
ly impressed by her affectionate and logical conversa-
from the Danial Defoe novel ‘Family Instructor’. Nazir
tion but still does not want to apologise to her mother. Ahmed in his preface did not mention any of this fact but
She went to her aunt without meeting her mother. In it seems that the religious perspective of the novel indi-
the company of her friend, her habits slowly improved cates his own religious thoughts (values). Dr Mohammad
and after a few months, she came back to her mother’s Sadiq indicated this while commenting a little bit on the
place. When her husband heard about her religious in- English extracts of Tobat-un-Nasooh, on the novels writ-
clination, he took her back to her in-laws. ten by Nazeer Ahmed under the caption of ‘Nazir Ahmed
Aik Jaeza’, in the edition of magazine ‘Mahe No’o’ in
References and Endnotes May 1951.
2
(Saksena 1975,9)
1
Tuobat-un-Nasooh is the third of the series of novels of 3
Nazir Ahmed, Tubat-un-Nasooh, (Lahore: Feroz Sons,
Nazeer Ahmad regarding education and reformation of the 1988) for detail see Chapter -1.
Muslim Ashrafia. There is contradiction about the year of 4
Ibid. chapter no 2 reflects the changed attitude of Nasooh
publication of Tubat-ub-Nasooh among the Urdu cri- and he calls all the family Members to convey his reli-
tiques. It is indicated from the preface of Binat –un-Nash gious issues.
that Nazeer Ahmed already had its outline in his mind and 5
Ibid, 45.
he wanted to write a story regarding the kids training and
religious education. That’s why in the last lines of Binatun
59
6
Ibid. in chapter no seven and tenth, detailed description Dr. Abdul Haq. chand Hum Asar (few contemporary). La-
mentioned about the dialogue of Kaleem with his mother hore: Matbua Anjuman Taraki e Urdu, 2005.
and brother. Farooqi, Muhammad Hussain. Novel kia hai (what is Novel).
7
Ibid, Lahore: Naseem Book Depot, 1974.
8
Ibid, 140 Fatima, Ansa Altaf . Urdu main Sawaneh Nigari ka irtaqa
9
Deputy Nazir Ahmed portrait his outlook in these words (evolution of biography writing in Urdu). Karachi: Urdu
“Mirza, he had hemmed Shoes on his feet, an expensive, Acedemy Sindh, 1961.
heavily embroidered cap on his head, not [one but two an- Ikram, S.M. History of Muslim Civilization in India and Pa-
garkhas on his body, over which he would wear a tanzeb, kistan. Lahore: Star Book Depot, 1962.
jand underneath a garment made of naino”. Ikram, S.M. the Cultural Heritage of Pakistan. Karachi:
10
(Nazir Ahmed, Tubat-un-Nasooh, 105-126) Oxford University Press,1955.
11
Ibid.,The two rooms he occupies in the house are named Jalal. Ayesha, Exploding Communalism: ‘The Politics of
Pleasure House and Private Abode respectively. One is Muslim identity in South Asia’ in Nationalism, Democracy
used to entertain his friends while the other houses his col- and Development: State and Politics in India. Delhi; Oxford
lection of books. University Press, 1988-89.
12
Ibid, 54. Mangulary, Tufail Ahmed. Musulmanoon ka Roshan Mus-
13
Ibid, 67. taqbil (glorious future of Muslims). Badayun: Mutbua Ni-
14
Ibid,105. zami, 1940.
15
Ibid.,126 Metcalf, Thomas R. Ideologies of the Raj .Cambridge: Cam-
16
Nasooh sends him an advisable letter, in which he men- bridge University Press, 1994.
tions the responsibility as the head of the family. He warns Methew, David J. Shakle, Christopher and Hussain Sharukh,
him about the religious obligations and suggested a right- Urdu Literature.Islamabad, Alhamra, 2003.
ful way. Mu k h erj ee, R.N., A Hi s to r y of S o cia l
17
He was belonged to poor family but pretend himself as Th o u g h t. M u sso r ie : Sara s wa t i P ra ka s ha,1 9 6 0 .
wealthy and resourceful person. Kaleem went to him, but Mukherjee. Meenakshi, (Ed), Early Novels in India. Delhi:
he arranged his stayed in a mosque, where a thieve stole Oxford University Press. 2000.
his cloth and bed sheet, Mukhia, Harbans. The Mughals of India. UK: Blackwell
18
Ibid., chapter no twelve deals with the character and be- Publishers, 2003.
havior of the Mirza Zahir Dar Baig. Narang, Gopi Chand. Urdu: Reading in Literary Urdu prose.
19
Shaista Suherwardi. Critical Survey of the development of Delhi: Educational Publishing House, 2000.
the Urdu novel and short story (London: longman’s Nizami. Khaliq Ahmed, State and Culture in Medieval In-
Green, 1945), 47. dia, New Delhi:1985.
20
Nazir Ahmed,Tobat-un-Nasooh. For detail see Chapter no Rab, Syed Fazle. Sociology of Literature. Delhi: Ansari
eight. Road, 1990.
Ahmed, Aziz. An Intellectual History of India. Edinburg:
1969.
Ahmed, Aziz. The Studies in Islamic Culture in the Indian
Environment. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1964.
Ahmed. Aijaz, Lineages of the Present: ideology and poli-
tics in contemporary South Asia, Verso, 2002.
Bailey, T.G., A History of Urdu Literature, London: Oxford
University Press, 1932.
Banerjee. Anil Chandra, History of India.Calcutta: Bankam
Chatterjee Street,1922.
Bayly,Susan. Caste, Society and Politics in India from the
Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age.C ambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1999.
C.M. Naim, “Prize-Winning Adab: A Study of Five Urdu
Books Written in Response to the Allahabad Government
Gazette Notification,” in Moral Conductand Authority: The
Place of Adab in South Asian Islam, ed. Barbara Metcalfe,
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984
Christina Oesterheld, ‘Nazir Ahmed and the Early Urdu
novel’ in Annual of Urdu Studies 16, 2001
60
Call for Papers
The Department of Islamic Thought and Civilization, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pa-
kistan, is publishing a bi-annual peer reviewed research journal of international standard titled ‘Jour-
nal of Islamic Thought & Civilization’. The Journal, which was first brought out in 2011, has been well received
by academicians and researchers worldwide, and five issues have been published to date. With an international
advisory board comprising of renowned scholars from USA, UK, Malaysia, Kenya, Canada, Australia and Paki-
stan, the journal has a global circulation.
The first two issues comprised of selection of research articles presented in national conference on Islam and Mo-
dernity (2009), and International Conference on Islamic Civilization: Potentials and Challenges (2011). The third
issue covered a diverse range of topics from wealth management in Islam to Foucault‘s refutation of religion and
from reconstruction of humanities in Islamic perspective to a reflection on the Muslim world‘s resources. The
fourth issue comprised of the aesthetic aspect of Muslim culture, i.e., Epigraphy of Bengal and Andalusia and Ar-
chitecture of Uzbekistan besides covering the mystic dimension of the Islamic Tradition of Imam Ghazali. The
fifth issue included research articles ranging from definition of Islamic Tradition, postmodern equipment of re-
search of Arkoun and an analysis of the intertwined roles of faith and reason in contemporary Islam.
To sum up, the Journal provides a platform to Islamic scholars, researchers, postgraduate students and social sci-
entists for publication of their research articles. Its avowed mission is to encourage research in Islamic thought
and civilization, and open up new avenues in the world of academia. Contributors may focus on various aspects
and shades of Islamic Thought & Civilization including Islamic art and architecture, Comparative Study in Reli-
gions and Civilizations, Oriental and Occidental Studies, and contemporary political and cultural dilemmas faced
by Muslim world.
The Editorial Board of the Journal invites papers on the theme of Allama Muhammad Iqbal and Islamic
Thought.
 Iqbal and Reconstruction of Religious Thought
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under consideration elsewhere.
61
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Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization

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JOURNAL OF ISLAMIC THOUGHT

Dr. Humaira Ahmad

Prof. Dr. John L. Esposito

Prof. Dr. Francis Robinson

Prof. Dr. Atta Ullah Siddiqui

Prof. Dr. Sulayman Nyang

Prof. Dr. Zahid Bukhari

Prof. Dr. Mustafa Ali

Prof. Dr. Mustanser Mir

Prof. Dr. Ibrahim M. Zein

Dr. Muzaffar Iqbal

Prof. Ziauddin Sardar

Dr. Salih Yucel

Dr. Salman Sayyid

Dr. Anis Ahmad

Mr. Suheyl Umar

Prof. Dr. Syed Nomanul Haq

Mohammad Dawood Sofi

Muhammad Shahid Habib

Azher Hameed Qamar

An Examination of Causes of Delay in the Distribution

Ismael Saka Ismael

Keywords: Ilorin, Islamic Law, Estate Distribution, Inheritance

Introduction and absolute control of disposal of his wealth or estate

References and Endnotes

Knowledge―Toward Bridging Religious and Modern Sciences:

Islamic Economic Thought in the Medieval Times: Some Reflections

Introduction arose to carry an earnest research to find the solutions

that the city develops with easy taxation and employ-

The Meaning of Religious Dialogue:

Keywords: Pakistan, Dialogue, Christian, Muslim and Religion

Introduction some other reasons for the failure of dialogue in Paki-

References and Endnotes

A Statistical Analysis for Increasing Reward

Keywords: Least Square, Reward for Salaa

1. Introduction avoided coming to the mosque to say their prayers in

(a) Power Curve

(a) Total Reward (b) Individual’s Reward

The Concept of the ‘Evil’ and the ‘Evil Eye’ in Islam

Azher Hameed Qamar

Keywords: Evil, Evil Eye, Religion, Islam

Introduction deeds of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW)2. To explain

Taubat-un-Nasooh: Religious implications among families of 19th century Ashrafia

Keywords: Colonial India, Conventional and Liberal Ashrafia, Religious

Introduction the family. They decide to talk to the children; he to

Naeemah as a Representative of a Free Minded

Call for Papers

Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization

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