BIODIVERSITY

10: Threats to Biodiversity

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Chapter Hook
The northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) is a western North American owl
species that prefers large swaths of pristine old growth forests (that typically take 150-200
years to mature) for nesting. Unfortunately, most western forests have been regularly
harvested for timber since around the establishment of the Forest Service in 1905. Thus, this
species preferred habitat has been largely destroyed and their populations have plummeted.
Habitat destruction is the number one cause for species extinction globally. For some species
that are very habitat specific, like the northern spotted owl, there are not as many
conservation actions to choose from that can help reverse declining population trends.
Figure 10.a10.� Northern spotted owl perched in a tree. Image by USFS (licensed
under CC-BY 2.0)

Biodiversity loss refers to the reduction of biodiversity due to displacement or extinction of

species. The loss of a particular individual species may seem unimportant to some, especially
if it is not a charismatic species like the Bengal tiger or the bottlenose dolphin. However,
biologists estimate that species extinctions are currently many times higher the normal, or
background, rate seen previously in Earth’s history. This translates to the loss of tens of
thousands of species within our lifetimes. This is likely to have dramatic effects on human
welfare through the collapse of ecosystems. Loss of biodiversity may have reverberating
consequences on ecosystems because of the complex interrelations among species. For
example, the extinction of one species may cause the extinction of another. To measure
biodiversity loss, scientists assess which species are at risk of extinction as well as survey
ecosystem decline.

The core threat to biodiversity on the planet is the combination of human population growth
and the resources used by that population. The human population requires resources to
survive and grow, and many of those resources are being removed unsustainably from the
environment. The five main threats to biodiversity are habitat loss, pollution,
overexploitation, invasive species, and climate change. Increased mobility and trade has
resulted in the introduction of invasive species while the other threats are direct results of
human population growth and resource use.

Speciation and Extinction

The number of species on the planet, or in any geographical area, is the result of an equilibrium
of two evolutionary processes that are ongoing: speciation and extinction. Speciation occurs
when new species evolve, and extinction is the global loss of a species. When speciation rates
begin to outstrip extinction rates, the number of species will increase; likewise, the number of
species will decrease when extinction rates begin to overtake speciation rates. Throughout
Earth’s history, these two processes have fluctuated—sometimes leading to dramatic changes in
the number of species on Earth as reflected in the fossil record (Figure 10.1.a10.1.�).
Figure 10.1.a10.1.�: Percent extinction occurrences as reflected in the fossil record have
fluctuated throughout Earth’s history. This graph shows the extinction occurrences as a
percentage over time (in millions of years before present time). At the lowest points on the cycle,
extinction occurrences were between 2% and 5% percent. Sudden and dramatic losses of
biodiversity, called mass extinctions, have occurred five times, marking the end of geological
periods: end-Ordovician, 450 million years ago; end-Devonian, 374 million years ago; end-
Permian, 252 million years ago; end-Triassic, 200 million years ago; and end-Cretaceous, 65
million years ago. During these spikes, extinction occurrences approximately ranged from 22%
to 50%.

Mass Extinctions
Paleontologists have identified five events in geological history of sudden and dramatic losses in
biodiversity, with more than half of all extant species disappearing from the fossil
record. Extant species are those that are surviving (not extinct) at a point in time. These five
events are called mass extinctions. There are many lesser, yet still dramatic, extinction events,
but the five mass extinctions have attracted the most research. An argument can be made that the
five mass extinctions are only the five most extreme events in a continuous series of large
extinction events that have occurred since 542 million years ago.
The fossil record of the mass extinctions was the basis for defining periods of geological history,
so they typically occur at the transition point between geological periods. The transition in fossils
from one period to another reflects the dramatic loss of species and the gradual origin of new
species. These transitions can be seen in the rock layers. Table 10.1.a10.1.� provides the
names and dates of the five mass extinctions.

In most cases, the hypothesized causes are still controversial; however, the causes of the most
recent event, the end-Cretaceous extinction, are best understood (table 10.1.a10.1.�). It was
during this extinction event that the dinosaurs, the dominant vertebrate group for millions of
years, disappeared from the planet (with the exception of a theropod clade that gave rise to
birds). Indeed, every land animal that weighed more then 25 kg (55 lbs) became extinct. The
cause of this extinction is now understood to be the result of a cataclysmic impact of a large
meteorite, or asteroid, off the coast of what is now the Yucatán Peninsula. Biodiversity recovery
times after mass extinctions vary, but have been up to 30 million years.

Table 10.1.a10.1.�: Summary of the five mass extinctions, including the name, dates, percent of b

Time (millions of
Geological Period Mass Extinction Name
years ago)

Ordovician–Silurian end-Ordovician O–S 450–440 8

Late Devonian end-Devonian 375–360 7

96%
Permian–Triassic end-Permian 251 70

Triassic–Jurassic end-Triassic 205

Cretaceous–Paleogene end-Cretaceous K–Pg (K–T) 65.5 50%

The Pleistocene Extinction is one of the lesser extinctions, and a recent one. It is well known that
the North American, and to some degree Eurasian megafauna, or large animals, disappeared
toward the end of the last glaciation (cooling) period. The extinction appears to have happened in
a relatively restricted time period of 10,000–12,000 years ago. In North America, the losses were
quite dramatic and included the woolly mammoths (last dated about 4,000 years ago in an
isolated population), mastodon, giant beavers, giant ground sloths, saber-toothed cats, and the
North American camel, just to name a few. The possibility that the rapid extinction of these large
animals was caused by overhunting, a type of overexploitation, was first suggested in the 1900s.
Research into this hypothesis continues today. It seems likely that overhunting caused many pre-
written history extinctions in many regions of the world.

The Sixth Mass Extinction

The sixth, or Holocene, mass extinction appears to have begun earlier than previously believed
and has mostly to do with the activities of Homo sapiens. Since the beginning of the Holocene
period, there are numerous recent extinctions of individual species that are recorded in human
writings. Most of these are coincident with the expansion of the European colonies since the
1500s.

One of the earlier and popularly known examples is the dodo bird. The dodo bird lived in the
forests of Mauritius, an island in the Indian Ocean. The dodo bird became extinct around 1662
(figure 10.1.b10.1.�). It was hunted for its meat by sailors and was easy prey because the
dodo, which did not evolve with humans, would approach people without fear. Introduced pigs,
rats, and dogs brought to the island by European ships also killed dodo young and eggs.
 Figure 10.1
.b10.1.�: The dodo bird was hunted to extinction around 1662. (credit: Ed Uthman, taken in
Natural History Museum, London, England)

Steller's sea cow became extinct in 1768; it was related to the manatee and probably once lived
along the northwest coast of North America. Steller's sea cow was first discovered by Europeans
in 1741 and was hunted for meat and oil. The last sea cow was killed in 1768. That amounts to
27 years between the sea cow’s first contact with Europeans and extinction of the species.

In 1914, the last living passenger pigeon died in a zoo in Cincinnati, Ohio. This species had once
darkened the skies of North America during its migrations, but it was hunted and suffered from
habitat loss through the clearing of forests for farmland. In 1918, the last living Carolina parakeet
died in captivity. This species was once common in the eastern United States, but it suffered
from habitat loss. The species was also hunted because it ate orchard fruit when its native foods
were destroyed to make way for farmland. The Japanese sea lion, which inhabited a broad area
around Japan and the coast of Korea, became extinct in the 1950s due to fishermen. The
Caribbean monk seal was distributed throughout the Caribbean Sea but was driven to extinction
via hunting by 1952.
As described in the next section, the current high rates of extinction will cause a large and rapid
decline in the biodiversity of the planet. According to a 2019 United Nations report, 1 million
species are at risk of extinction. Considering there are estimated to be 8-11 million species
total (see The Number of Species on Earth), that means up to 12.5% of species could go extinct,
and many of them within our lifetimes.

Estimates of Present-Time Extinction Rates

The background extinction rate is estimated to be about 1 extinction per million species each
year (E/MSY). For example, if there are 8-11 million species in existence, then we would expect
8-11 of those species to become extinct in a year.

Estimates of extinction rates are hampered by the fact that most extinctions are probably
happening without observation. One contemporary extinction-rate estimate uses the extinctions
in the written record since the year 1500. For birds alone, this method yields an estimate of 26
E/MSY, almost three times the background rate. However, this value may be underestimated for
three reasons. First, many existing species would not have been described until much later in the
time period and so their loss would have gone unnoticed. Second, we know the number is higher
than the written record suggests because now extinct species are being described from skeletal
remains that were never mentioned in written history. And third, some species are probably
already extinct even though conservationists are reluctant to name them as such. Taking these
factors into account raises the estimated extinction rate to nearer 100 E/MSY. The predicted rate
by the end of the century is 1500 E/MSY.

A second approach to estimating present-time extinction rates is to correlate species loss with
habitat loss, and it is based on measuring forest-area loss and understanding species–area
relationships. The species-area relationship is the rate at which new species are seen when the
area surveyed is increased (figure 10.1.c10.1.�). Likewise, if the habitat area is reduced, the
number of species seen will also decline. This kind of relationship is also seen in the relationship
between an island’s area and the number of species present on the island: as one increases, so
does the other, though not in a straight line. Estimates of extinction rates based on habitat loss
and species–area relationships have suggested that with about 90 percent of habitat loss an
expected 50 percent of species would become extinct. Species–area estimates have led to
estimates of present-day species extinction rates of about 1000 E/MSY and higher.
Figure 10.1.c10.1.�: A typical species-area curve shows the cumulative number of species
found as more and more area is sampled. The curve has also been interpreted to show the effect
on species numbers of destroying habitat; a reduction in habitat of 90 percent from 100 km2 to 10
km2 reduces the number of species supported by about 50 percent.

Many extinctions will affect species that biologists have not yet discovered. Most of these
“invisible” species that will become extinct currently live in tropical rainforests
(figure 10.1.d10.1.�). These rainforests are the most diverse ecosystems on the planet and are
being destroyed rapidly by deforestation to provide timber and space for agriculture.
 Figure 10.1
.d10.1.�: This tropical lowland rainforest in Madagascar is an example of a high biodiversity
habitat. This particular location is protected within a national forest, yet only 10 percent of the
original coastal lowland forest remains, and research suggests half the original biodiversity has
been lost. (credit: Frank Vassen)

Extirpation
The elimination of species at a local level–known as extirpation – also poses threats to the
integrity and sustainability of ecosystems. Widespread extirpation can obviously lead to
extinction, but absence of species, even at a local scale, can affect ecosystem function. For
example, by the mid-1920s wolves had been extirpated from Yellowstone National Park,
although they continued to thrive elsewhere. When wolves were reintroduced to the park in the
mid-1990s, they regulated elk populations, benefiting the vegetation and plant communities
(see Ecosystem Restoration). What mattered for ecosystem function in Yellowstone was whether
wolves were present there, not just whether the species survived somewhere.

The Red List

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) coordinates
efforts to catalog and preserve biodiversity worldwide. One way scientists gauge trends
in biodiversity is by monitoring the fate of individual species. Since 1964, the IUCN has
compiled information in the Red List of Threatened Species, which includes plants,
animals, fungi, and selected brown algae species. Updates to the Red List are released
every four years.

Species can be classified into nine Red List categories based on their extinction risk.
Firstly, there are species that are already extinct and those that are extinct in the
wild, meaning that the remaining individuals are only found in captivity. Species at risk
of extinction are called threatened. Species that are at risk of becoming threatened
are called near threatened. The Emperor Penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) is an
example a near threatened species, mainly due to habitat loss and climate
change (figure 10.2.a10.2.�). Those with little risk of extinction are designated least
concern. Note that only a fraction of the 8-11 million species on Earth are identified
(see The Number of Species on Earth). For many of the species that are identified, data
still needs to be gathered before they can be assigned to a Red List category (data
deficient). Less than 10% of the approximately 1.5 million identified species have
been assessed for the Red List at all. Species that have not been assessed are
deemed not evaluated.
Figure 10.2.a10.2.�: The Emperor Penguin is an example of near threatened species. Image
by Christopher Michel (CC-BY).

There are three categories of threatened species: vulnerable,

endangered, and critically endangered. Of these, critically endangered species
have the greatest risk while vulnerable species are at the least risk out of the
threatened categories. The African elephant (Loxodonta africana) is listed vulnerable
species due to poaching and habitat loss (figure 10.2.b10.2.�). Interestingly, the
forest subspecies (L. africana cylotis) is at much greater risk than the savanna
subspecies (L. africana africana), but the Red List category is assigned at the species
level in this case. The blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) is endangered due to
pollution, climate change, and poaching (figure 10.2.c10.2.�). Fortunately, blue whale
population size is increasing. Several species of pitcher plants, which trap insects as a
source of nitrogen, are critically endangered due to overexploitation and habitat
loss (figure 10.2.d10.2.�).

Figure 10.2.b10.2.�: The African forest elephant

(Loxodonta africana cylotis) is at greater risk of extinction than the savanna subspecies. When
both subspecies are grouped together, African elephants are considered vulnerable. Image
by Peter H. Wrege (CC-BY-SA).
Figure 10.2.c10.2.�: The blue whale (Bal enoptera m sculus )

s cate orize d as e n dnger

2.d10.2.�: Nepenth
ed according to the IU N ReList. Image by Mike Baird (CC-BY).Figure 10 s ar
is to

Extinct and Threatened Animals

Scientists know much more about the state of vertebrates—especially mammals,
birds, and amphibians—than they do about other forms of animal life. Of 6,594
described mammal species, 96 species have become extinct during the last 500
years (Mammal Diversity Database). According to the Red List, approximately 26% of
mammal species worldwide are known to be threatened. A smaller percentage (about
14%) of the world's 10,721 identified bird species (Birds of the World)
are threatened (figure 10.2.e10.2.�).
 Figure 10.2.e10.2.�: North American passenger pigeons lived in enormous flocks
and were once the most numerous birds on earth. Market hunting on a massive scale
and habitat destruction combined to extinguish them as a species in the early twentieth
century.

Among the well-studied vertebrates, amphibians are faring especially poorly. Of the
more than 6,000 known species of amphibians, 35 have become extinct worldwide
since 1500 (figure 10.2.f10.2.�), and two others are extinct in the wild (Red List).
Overall, 41% of the world's amphibian species are known to be threatened (Red
List). Only small proportions of the world's species of reptiles and fish have been
evaluated for purposes of the Red List. Among those, 34% of selected reptiles and 8%
of selected bony fishes are threatented (Red List).

Figure 10.2.f10.2.�: The extinct golden toad of Monteverde, Costa Rica, was last
seen in 1989. Its extinction is attributed to fungal infection combined with especially
hot, dry weather. Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service via Wikimedia Commons

Invertebrates comprise the vast majority of animals, an estimated 97% of animal

species. They include everything from insects and arachnids, to mollusks, crustaceans,
corals, and more. Few of these groups have been assessed in a comprehensive way,
but assessments within some groups call attention to disturbing, large-scale trends. For
example, 33% of the world's reef-building corals are already considered threatened
(Red List), and many more of them are experiencing rates of decline that move them
toward threatened status (figure 10.2.g10.2.�). The demise of reef-building corals
has magnified ecological impacts, since so much other marine life depends on them.

Figure 10.2.g10.2.�: Reef-formal corals, such this pink soft coral, are at high risk
of extinction. Source: Linda Wade via National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA)

Ecosystem Loss and Alteration

Another way of gauging biodiversity involves assessment on the scale of ecosystems.
The causes of wholesale losses of ecosystems are much the same as those driving
extinction or endangerment of species, with habitat
destruction and fragmentation being the primary agent. Worldwide, for example, the
conversion of land to agriculture and cultivation have led to significant losses in
grassland ecosystems. In North America, nearly 70% of the tallgrass prairie ecosystem
(which once covered 142 million acres) has been converted to agriculture, and losses
from other causes, such as urban development, have brought the total to about 90%.
 Current estimates indicate that agricultural activity and cultivation systems now cover
nearly 25% of the Earth's surface

According to the United Nations Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, by the beginning of

the 21st century, 15 of the world’s 24 ecosystems, from rainforests to aquifers to
fisheries, were rated in serious decline. For example, tropical rainforests, which are the
habitats for nearly half of the world's plant and animal species, covered about 4 billion
acres in past centuries, but only 2.5 billion acres remain and nearly 1% is being lost
annually. Losses have been especially severe in the tropics of Africa and Southeast
Asia. Current estimates indicate that about 50% of the world's wetland habitat has
been lost. (Note that wetlands are a broad collection of many different ecosytem
types.) The former extent of wetland habitats worldwide (fresh, brackish and salt) is
difficult to determine but certainly exceeded a billion acres.

10.3: Habitat Loss

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 Melissa Ha and Rachel Schleiger
 Yuba College & Butte College via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative
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Humans rely on technology to modify their environment and make it habitable. Other species
cannot do this. Elimination of their habitat—whether it is a forest, coral reef, grassland, or
flowing river—will kill the individuals in the species. Remove the entire habitat, and the species
will become extinct, unless they are among the few species that do well in human-built
environments. Habitat loss includes habitat destruction and habitat fragmentation.

Habitat Destruction
Habitat destruction occurs when the physical environment required by a species is altered so
that the species can no longer live there. Human destruction of habitats accelerated in the latter
half of the twentieth century. Consider the exceptional biodiversity of Sumatra: it is home to one
species of orangutan, a species of critically endangered elephant, and the Sumatran tiger, but half
of Sumatra’s forest is now gone. The neighboring island of Borneo, home to the other species of
orangutan, has lost a similar area of forest. Forest loss continues in protected areas of Borneo.
The orangutan in Borneo is listed as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN), but it is simply the most visible of thousands of species that will not survive the
disappearance of the forests of Borneo. The forests are removed for timber and to plant palm oil
plantations (figure [Math Processing Error]10.3.�). Palm oil is used in many products
including food products, cosmetics, and biodiesel in Europe. According to Global Forest Watch,
9.7% of tree cover was lost globally from 2002 to 2019, and 9% of that occurred in Indonesia
and Malaysia (where Sumatra and Borneo are located). Figure [Math Processing
Error]10.3.� shows the average annual change in forest area around the world from 1990 to
2015.
Figure [Math Processing Error]10.3.�: (a) One species of orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus, is found only in
the rainforests of Borneo, and the other species of orangutan (Pongo abelii) is found only in the
rainforests of Sumatra. These animals are examples of the exceptional biodiversity of (c) the islands of
Sumatra and Borneo, which are located in the south Pacific, just northwest of Australia. Sumatra is in
the country of Indonesia. Half of Borneo is in Indonesia, and half is in Malaysia. Other species include
the (b) Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) and the (d) Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus
sumatranus), both critically endangered species. Rainforest habitat is being removed to make way for
(e) oil palm plantations such as this one in Borneo’s Sabah Province. (credit a: modification of work by
Thorsten Bachner; credit b: modification of work by Dick Mudde; credit c: modification of work by U.S.
CIA World Factbook; credit d: modification of work by “Nonprofit Organizations”/Flickr; credit e:
modification of work by Dr. Lian Pin Koh)
Figure [Math Processing Error]10.3.�: Average annual change in forest area globally from 2005 to 2015.
China is dark green, indicating that have gained more than 500 "kilohectares" (kha) of forest. Medium g
reen indicates countries that have gained 250-500 kha, including the the United States India, Ghutan
, and Bangladesh. Light green indicates countries that have gained 50-250 khA, including Chile, Spain, Fran
ce, Italy, Turkey, Iran, Russia, Vietnam and Thailand. Indonesia and Brazil lost more than 500 kha o
f forest (marked with dark red). Countries that lost 500-250 kha are marked with medium
red, in luding Bolivia, Argentina, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, an
d Myanmar. Countries that lost 250-50 kha are marked with light red and an asterisk (*). These include
Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay, Mali, Burki
na Faso, Ben n, Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda, Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zimba
bwe, Mozambique, Cambodia, North Korea, and Australia No data has ben collected for Ant rctica. All ot
her regions have had lost or gain ed less than 50 kh a

Preventing Habitat Destruction with Wise Wood Choices

Most consumers do not imagine that the home improvement products they buy might be
contributing to habitat loss and species extinctions. Yet the market for illegally harvested tropical
timber is huge, and the wood products often find themselves in building supply stores in the
United States. One estimate is that up to 10% of the imported timber in the United States, which
is the world’s largest consumer of wood products, is illegally logged. A 2012 United Nations and
Interpol report estimated that the illegal timber trade is worth $30-100 billion each year. Most of
the illegal products are imported from countries that act as intermediaries and are not the
originators of the wood.

How is it possible to determine if a wood product, such as flooring, was harvested sustainably or
even legally? The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certifies sustainably harvested forest
products (figure [Math Processing Error]10.3.�). Looking for their certification on flooring and
other hardwood products is one way to ensure that the wood has not been taken illegally from a
tropical forest. There are certifications other than the FSC, but these are run by timber
companies, thus creating a conflict of interest. Another approach is to buy domestic wood
species. While it would be great if there was a list of legal versus illegal woods, it is not that
simple. Logging and forest management laws vary from country to country; what is illegal in one
country may be legal in another. Where and how a product is harvested and whether the forest
from which it comes is being sustainably maintained all factor into whether a wood product will
be certified by the FSC. It is always a good idea to ask questions about where a wood product
came from and how the supplier knows that it was harvested legally.
Figure [Math Processing Error]10.3.�: The sawmill in Uaxactun, Guatamala is Forest Stewardship
Council (FSC) certified and provides good income from a sustainable resource for not only the saw
operators but also many others who help keep the operation running. Image by Jason Houston for
USAID (public domain).

Habitat Destruction of Rivers and Streams

Habitat destruction can affect ecosystems other than forests. Rivers and streams are important
ecosystems and are frequently the target of habitat modification. Damming of rivers affects flow
and access to habitat. Altering a flow regime can reduce or eliminate populations that are adapted
to seasonal changes in flow. For example, an estimated 91% of riverways in the United States
have been modified with damming or stream bank modification. Many fish species in the United
States, especially rare species or species with restricted distributions, have seen declines caused
by river damming and habitat loss. Research has confirmed that species of amphibians that must
carry out parts of their life cycles in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats are at greater risk of
population declines and extinction because of the increased likelihood that one of their habitats
or access between them will be lost. This is of particular concern because amphibians have been
declining in numbers and going extinct more rapidly than many other groups for a variety of
possible reasons.

Habitat Fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation occurs when the living space of a species is divided into discontinuous
patches. For example, a mountain highway could divide a forest habitat into separate patches.
This is especially problematic for consumers at the top of the food chain, which require large
ranges to find adequate prey. Additionally, habitat fragmentation separates individuals from
potential mates. Wildlife corridors mitigate the damage of habitat fragmentation by connecting
patches with suitable habitat. For example, the bridge over a highway could allow animals to
move between habitat patches (figure [Math Processing Error]10.3.�). Riparian areas, areas of
land adjacent to bodies of water, such as streams, can serve as natural wildlife corridors when
left intact.
 10.4: Overexploitation
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Overexploitation (overharvesting) involves hunting, fishing, or otherwise collecting organisms

at a faster rate than they can be replenished.

Terrestrial Animals
Terrestrial animals may be overexploited as sources of food, garments, jewelry, medicine, or
pets. For example, the poaching of elephants for their valuable ivory and rhinos for their horns,
which are used in traditional medicine, is a major threat to these species. There are also concerns
about the effect of the pet trade on some terrestrial species such as turtles, amphibians, birds,
plants, and even the orangutans. Harvesting of pangolins for their scales and meat, and as
curiosities, has led to a drastic decline in population size (figure 10.4.a10.4.�).
 Figure 10.4
.a10.4.�: Pangolins are threatened by overexploitation. This work by David Brossard is licensed
under CC-BY.

Bush meat is the generic term used for wild animals killed for food. Hunting is practiced
throughout the world, but hunting practices, particularly in equatorial Africa and parts of Asia,
are believed to threaten several species with extinction. Traditionally, bush meat in Africa was
hunted to feed families directly. However, recent commercialization of the practice now has bush
meat available in grocery stores, which has increased harvest rates to the level of
unsustainability. Additionally, human population growth has increased the need for protein foods
that are not being met from agriculture. Species threatened by the bush meat trade are mostly
mammals including many monkeys and the great apes living in the Congo basin.

Aquatic Animals
Aquatic species are particularly vulnerable to overexploitation, which is more specifically
called overfishing in this case. For about one billion people, aquatic resources provide the main
source of animal protein (figure 10.4.b10.4.�), but since 1990, production from
global fisheries (areas for catching wild or farmed fish or other aquatic animals) has declined.
Figure 10.4.c10.4.� illustrates the extent of overfishing in the U.S. Despite considerable
effort, few fisheries are managed sustainability. For example, the western Atlantic cod fishery
was a hugely productive fishery for 400 years, but the introduction of modern fishing vessels in
the 1980s and the pressure on the fishery led to it becoming unsustainable. Bluefin tuna are in
danger of extinction. The once-abundant Mediterranean swordfish fishery have been depleted to
commercial and biological exhaustion.
 Figure 10.4.b10.4.�: Fishing boats at marine fishers. Alaskan waters have been fished by people
for thousands of years, but they are under pressure from modern fishing technologies and large-scale
extraction. Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Figure 10.4.c10.4.�: Map of overfishing and overfished stocks in et U.S. by egion. Stocks on the overfi
shing list are being harvested too quickly, and those on the overfished list have population si
zes that a e too low. Forxample, stocks of Chinook salmon, Coho salmon, and Pacific sardines are overfish
ed in the Pacific. Some species, including stocks o Pac fic bluefin tuna

Most fisheries are managed as a common resource, available to anyone willing to fish, even
when the fishing territory lies within a country’s territorial waters. Common resources are
subject to an economic pressure known as the tragedy of the commons, in which fishers have
little motivation to exercise restraint in harvesting a fishery when they do not own the
fishery. This results on overexploitation. In a few fisheries, the biological growth of the resource
is less than the potential growth of the profits made from fishing if that time and money were
invested elsewhere. In these cases—whales are an example—economic forces will drive toward
fishing the population to extinction.

Overfishing can result in a radical restructuring of the marine ecosystem in which a dominant
species is so overexploited that it no longer serves its ecological function. For example,
overfishing a tertiary consumer could causes populations of secondary consumers to increase.
Secondary consumers would then feed on primary consumes (like zooplankton), decreasing their
population size. With fewer zooplankton, populations of primary producers (phytoplankton, or
photosynthetic microorganisms) would be unregulated (see Food Chains). The collapse of
fisheries has dramatic and long-lasting effects on local human populations that work in the
fishery. In addition, the loss of an inexpensive protein source to populations that cannot afford to
replace it will increase the cost of living and limit societies in other ways. In general, the fish
taken from fisheries have shifted to smaller species, and the larger species are overfished. The
ultimate outcome could clearly be the loss of aquatic systems as food sources.

A related consequence of fishing practices is "bycatch," animals that fishers sometimes catch
and discard because they do not want them, cannot sell them, or are not allowed to keep them.
Bycatch can be fish, but also includes other animals such as dolphins, whales, sea turtles, and
seabirds that become hooked or entangled in fishing gear.

Coral reefs are extremely diverse marine ecosystems that face peril from several processes. Reefs
are home to 1/3 of the world’s marine fish species—about 4,000 species—despite making up
only one percent of marine habitat. Most home marine aquaria house coral reef species that are
wild-caught organisms—not cultured organisms. Although no marine species is known to have
been driven extinct by the pet trade, there are studies showing that populations of some species
have declined in response to harvesting, indicating that the harvest is not sustainable at those
levels.

Plants and Fungi

Some plant and fungal species are also overexploited, particularly if they are slow-growing. For
example, stocks of wild ginseng, which is valued for its health benefits, are dwindling. Peyote
cactus, which causes hallucinations and is used in sacred ceremonies, is also
declining. Yarsagumba, dead moth larvae that were infected by fungal parasites (caterpillar
fungus, Ophiocordyceps sinensis), is overexploited because it is highly valued in traditional
medicine and used as an aphrodisiac (figure 10.4.d10.4.�).

Figure 10.4.d10.4.�: Yarsagumba

is a combination of moth larvae and the fungus that infected and killed it. Image by Punya (CC-BY-SA).

10.5: Pollution
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Pollution occurs when chemicals, particles, or other materials are released into the environment,
harming the organisms there. For many thousands of years, ever since they built the first
campfire, human activity has generated air, water, and soil pollution. For most of human history,
however, these contaminants had relatively little environmental impact. But over the last few
centuries, pollution levels skyrocketed as a result of population growth and the Industrial
Revolution. As a result, regulations have been enacted to control emissions. Even where these
are effective in curbing current pollution sources, high levels of contamination may exist from
past activity. And new contamination can occur through industrial accidents or other inadvertent
releases of toxic substances.

Pollution has contributed to the decline of many threatened species. For example, a 2007 study
by Kingsford and colleagues found that pollution was a major pressure on 30% of threatened
Red List species in Australia and surrounding regions.

Power plants, factories, and vehicles are common sources of air pollution. In some cases, the
pollutants are directly toxic (for example, lead), but in other cases the pollutants indirectly cause
ecological harm when they are present in unnaturally large quantities (for example, carbon
dioxide emissions leading to climate change). Not only can air pollutants directly harm animals
by causing respiratory issues and cancer as well as damage vegetation, but some interact with the
atmosphere to form acid deposition (commonly called acid rain). Acid deposition disrupts
aquatic ecosystems as well as soil communities and plant growth.

Heavy metals, plastics, pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, and sediments are examples of water
pollution. Heavy metals (including copper, lead, mercury, and zinc) can leach into soil and water
from mines. Furthermore, acid mine drainage is caused by reaction of mine wastes, such as
sulfides, with rainfall or groundwater to produce acids, like sulfuric acid. The Environmental
Protection Agency estimates that 40% of the watersheds in the western United States are
contaminated by mine run-off. Plastics harm shorebirds, turtles and aquatic invertebrates
that ingest and accumulate them. Nutrients, such as nitrate and phosphates, are healthy in bodies
of water to an extent, but when fertilizer pollution adds too many of these nutrients at one time,
algal blooms can result. This has cascading effects that can ultimately shade and kill aquatic
plants and deplete oxygen needed by fish and other animals (eutrophication). A particularly
concerning water pollution problem is micropollutants. For examples, some chemical residues
affect growth, cause birth defects, and have other toxic effects on humans and other organisms
even at very low concentrations.

Figure 10.5.a10.5.� summarizes the effects of air and water pollution on biodiversity, and
the chapters about Solid Waste Management, Water Pollution, and Air Pollution explain these
threats in more detail.

Figure 10.5.a10.5.�: Some sources of water and air pollution and their major effects on biodiversity.
Sources of pollution include industry, car emissions, power plants, pesticides, fertilizers, and drugs.
Some major consequences of air pollution include respiratory problems, acid precipitation, plant
damage, ozone depletion, and climate change. Water pollution can bioaccumulate and can lead to
eutrophication, death by plastic, reduced photosynthesis, and hormone disruption. Image by Leafcutter
Media (CC-BY-SA).
 10.6: Invasive Species
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Invasive species are non-native organisms that, when introduced to an area out of its native
range, disrupt the community they invade. Non-native (exotic) refers to species occurring
outside of their historic distribution. Invasive species have been intentionally or unintentionally
introduced by humans into an ecosystem in which they did not evolve. Human transportation of
people and goods, including the intentional transport of organisms for trade, has dramatically
increased the introduction of species into new ecosystems. These new introductions are
sometimes at distances that are well beyond the capacity of the species to ever travel itself and
outside the range of the species’ natural predators. Invasive species can cause ecological and
economic damage. They threaten other species through competition for resources, predation, or
disease.
In the United States, invasive species like the purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) and the
zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) have drastically altered the ecosystems they invaded.
Some well-known invasive animals include the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) and the
European starling (Sturnus vulgaris; figure 10.6.a10.6.�). Whether enjoying a forest hike,
taking a summer boat trip, or simply walking down an urban street, you have likely encountered
an invasive species.

Figure 10.6.a10.6.�: In the United States, invasive species like (a) purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria)
and the (b) zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) threaten certain aquatic ecosystems. Some forests are
threatened by the spread of (c) common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica), (d) garlic mustard (Alliaria
petiolata), and (e) the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis). The (f) European starling (Sturnus
vulgaris) may compete with native bird species for nest holes. (credit a: modification of work by Liz
West; credit b: modification of work by M. McCormick, NOAA; credit c: modification of work by E.
Dronkert; credit d: modification of work by Dan Davison; credit e: modification of work by USDA; credit
f: modification of work by Don DeBold)

Asian Carp
One of the many recent proliferations of an invasive species concerns the Asian carp in the
United States. Asian carp were introduced to the United States in the 1970s by fisheries
(commercial catfish ponds) and by sewage treatment facilities that used the fish’s excellent filter
feeding abilities to clean their ponds of excess plankton. Some of the fish escaped, and by the
1980s they had colonized many waterways of the Mississippi River basin, including the Illinois
and Missouri Rivers.

Voracious feeders and rapid reproducers, Asian carp may outcompete native species for food and
could lead to their extinction. One species, the grass carp, feeds on phytoplankton and aquatic
plants. It competes with native species (those that historically occurred in the area and are
adapted to the local ecosystem) for these resources and alters habitats for other fish by removing
aquatic plants. In some parts of the Illinois River, Asian carp constitute 95 percent of the
community’s biomass. Although edible, the fish is bony and not desired in the United States.

The Great Lakes and their prized salmon and lake trout fisheries are being threatened by Asian
carp. The carp are not yet present in the Great Lakes, and attempts are being made to prevent its
access to the lakes through the Chicago Ship and Sanitary Canal, which is the only connection
between the Mississippi River and Great Lakes basins. To prevent the Asian carp from leaving
the canal, a series of electric barriers have been used to discourage their migration; however, the
threat is significant enough that several states and Canada have sued to have the Chicago channel
permanently cut off from Lake Michigan. Local and national politicians have weighed in on how
to solve the problem. In general, governments have been ineffective in preventing or slowing the
introduction of invasive species.

Effect on Endemic Species

Lakes and islands are particularly vulnerable to extinction threats from introduced species. In
Lake Victoria, the intentional introduction of the Nile perch was largely responsible for the
extinction of about 200 species of cichlids (see Patterns of Biodiversity). The accidental
introduction of the brown tree snake via aircraft (figure 10.6.b10.6.�) from the Solomon
Islands to Guam in 1950 has led to the extinction of three species of birds and three to five
species of reptiles endemic to the island. Several other species are still threatened. The brown
tree snake is adept at exploiting human transportation as a means to migrate; one was even found
on an aircraft arriving in Corpus Christi, Texas. Constant vigilance on the part of airport,
military, and commercial aircraft personnel is required to prevent the snake from moving from
Guam to other islands in the Pacific, especially Hawaii. Islands do not make up a large area of
land on the globe, but they do contain a disproportionate number of endemic species because of
their isolation from mainland ancestors.
 Figure 10.6.
b10.6.�: The brown tree snake, Boiga irregularis, is an exotic species that has caused numerous
extinctions on the island of Guam since its accidental introduction in 1950. (credit: NPS)

Introduction by Ballast Water

Many introductions of aquatic species, both marine and freshwater, have occurred when ships
have dumped ballast water taken on at a port of origin into waters at a destination port. Water
from the port of origin is pumped into tanks on a ship empty of cargo to increase stability. The
water is drawn from the ocean or estuary of the port and typically contains living organisms such
as plant parts, microorganisms, eggs, larvae, or aquatic animals. The water is then pumped out
before the ship takes on cargo at the destination port, which may be on a different continent. The
zebra mussel was introduced to the Great Lakes from Europe prior to 1988 in ballast water. The
zebra mussels in the Great Lakes have created millions of dollars in clean-up costs to maintain
water intakes and other facilities. The mussels have also altered the ecology of the lakes
dramatically. They threaten native mollusk populations, but have also benefited some species,
such as smallmouth bass. The mussels are filter feeders and have dramatically improved water
clarity, which in turn has allowed aquatic plants to grow along shorelines, providing shelter for
young fish where it did not exist before. The European green crab, Carcinus maenas, was
introduced to San Francisco Bay in the late 1990s, likely in ship ballast water, and has spread
north along the coast to Washington. The crabs have been found to dramatically reduce the
abundance of native clams and crabs with resulting increases in the prey species of those native
crabs.
Invasive Species as Diseases
Invading exotic species can also be disease organisms. It now appears that the global decline in
amphibian species recognized in the 1990s is, in some part, caused by the
fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which causes the disease chytridiomycosis
(figure 10.6.c10.6.�). There is evidence that the fungus is native to Africa and may have been
spread throughout the world by transport of a commonly used laboratory and pet species: the
African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis. It may well be that biologists themselves are responsible
for spreading this disease worldwide. The North American bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, which
has also been widely introduced as a food animal but which easily escapes captivity, survives
most infections of B. dendrobatidis and can act as a disease reservoir by storing the infectious
fungus.
 Figure 10.6.
c10.6.�: This Limosa harlequin frog (Atelopus limosus), an endangered species from Panama, died from
a fungal disease called chytridiomycosis. The red lesions are symptomatic of the disease. (credit: Brian
Gratwicke)

Early evidence suggests that another fungal pathogen, Geomyces destructans, introduced from
Europe is responsible for white-nose syndrome, which infects cave-hibernating bats in eastern
North America and has spread from a point of origin in western New York State
(figure 10.6.d10.6.�). The disease has decimated bat populations and threatens extinction of
species already listed as endangered: the Indiana bat, Myotis sodalis, and potentially the Virginia
big-eared bat, Corynorhinus townsendii virginianus. How the fungus was introduced is
unknown, but one logical presumption would be that recreational cavers unintentionally brought
the fungus on clothes or equipment from Europe.
 Figure 10.6.
d10.6.�: This little brown bat in Greeley Mine, Vermont, March 26, 2009, was found to have white-
nose syndrome. (credit: modification of work by Marvin Moriarty, USFWS).

Biological Control of Invasive Species

One reason why invasive species proliferate dramatically outside of their native range is due
to release from predators. This means that parasites, predators, or herbivores that usually
regulate their populations are not present, allowing them to outcompete or overpredate native
species, which are still regulated. Based on this principle, organisms that regulate the invasive
species populations have been introduced to the newly colonized areas in some cases. The
release of organisms (or viruses) to limit population size is called biological control. As
described in the examples below, biological control of invasive species has had varying success,
exacerbating the problem in some cases and solving it in others.

Prickly-pear Cactus (Opuntia)

Introduced into Australia, this cactus soon spread over millions of hectares of range land driving
out forage plants. In 1924, the cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum, was introduced (from
Argentina) into Australia. The caterpillars of the moth are voracious feeders on prickly-pear
cactus, and within a few years, the caterpillars had reclaimed the range land without harming a
single native species. However, its introduction into the Caribbean in 1957 did not produce such
happy results. By 1989, the cactus moth had reached Florida, and now threatens five species of
native cacti there.

Purple Loosestrife
The leaf beetle (Galerucella calmariensis) has been introduced to suppress purple loosestrife, a
noxious weed (figure 10.6.e10.6.�). A combination of four biological controls, including the
leaf beetle were released in Minnesota since 1992. While it has not eradicated populations of this
invasive species, biological control largely removed leaves from 20% of the purple loosestrive
populations where it was released, which could reduce competition for native species. The
biological controls established populations in most locations where they were released and even
spread to new patches of purple loosestrife.

Figure 10.6.e10.6.�: You

ng larvae of the leaf-beetle feed in and on the developing buds of plants, often destroying them. This
may stunt plant growth and delay or prevent flowering. Adults (shown) and older larvae feed on leaves
and cause severe defoliation. Leaf-beetles can be used to as a biocontrol for invasive plants such as
purple loosestrife.
Klamath Weed

In 1946 two species of Chrysolina beetles were introduced into California to control the Klamath
weed (St. Johnswort) that was ruining millions of acres of range land in California and the
Pacific Northwest. Before their release, the beetles were carefully tested to make certain that they
would not turn to valuable plants once they had eaten all the Klamath weed they could find. The
beetles succeeded beautifully, restoring about 99% of the endangered range land and earning
them a commemorative plaque at the Agricultural Center Building in Eureka, California.

European Rabbit
In 1859, the European rabbit was introduced into Australia for sport. With no important predator
there, it multiplied explosively (figure 10.6.f10.6.�). The raising of sheep (another imported
species) suffered badly as the rabbits competed with them for forage.

Figure 10.6
.f10.6.�: These rabbits in Australia removed all forage plants, which ordinarily supply them with water
as well as food. They thus had to drink from a pool. Image by National Archives of Australia (public
domain).

In 1950, the myxoma virus was brought from Brazil and released. The epidemic that followed
killed off millions of rabbits (more than 99% of the population). Green grass returned, and sheep
raising once again became profitable. Rabbit populations gradually increased, however,
 because the rabbits evolved to be more resistant to the virus, and the myxoma virus evolved to
cause less damage. (Parasites, like viruses, benefit from multiplying inside the host and
spreading to other individuals. If they kill their hosts too soon, they typically limit opportunities
to multiply and spread.) More recently, the rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus has been used as
biological control.

Strategies for Effective Biological Control

To summarize the lessons learned from biological control successes and failures, only candidates
that have a very narrow target preference (eat only a sharply-limited range of hosts) should be
chosen. Each candidate should be carefully tested to be sure that once it has cleaned up the
intended target, it does not turn to desirable species. Biological controls must not be used against
native species. Finally, introduction of non-native species into the environment should be
avoided because they could themselves be invasive.

10.7: Climate Change

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Global climate change is also a consequence of human population needs for energy, and the use
of fossil fuels to meet those needs. Essentially, burning fossil fuels, including as oil, natural gas,
and coal, increases carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide traps heat
energy from the sun, resulting not only in an average increase in global temperature but also in
changing precipitation patterns and increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events,
such as hurricanes. Scientists overwhelmingly agree the present warming trend is caused by
humans. See the Climate Change chapter for a detailed description its cause and impacts. A few
examples of how climate change impacts biodiversity are described in the paragraphs below.
Climate change is recognized as a major extinction threat, particularly when combined with other
threats such as habitat loss. Scientists disagree about the likely magnitude of the effects, with
extinction rate estimates ranging from 15 percent to 40 percent of species committed to
extinction by 2050. By altering regional climates, it makes habitats less hospitable to the species
living in them. The warming trend will shift colder climates toward the north and south poles,
forcing species to move (if possible) with their adapted climate norms. For example, one study
indicates that European bird species ranges have moved 91 kilometers (56.5 miles) northward,
on average. The same study suggested that the optimal shift based on warming trends was double
that distance, suggesting that the populations are not moving quickly enough. Range shifts have
also been observed in plants, butterflies, other insects, freshwater fishes, reptiles, amphibians,
and mammals.

The shifting ranges will impose new competitive regimes on species as they find themselves in
contact with other species not present in their historic range. One such unexpected species
contact is between polar bears and grizzly bears (figure 10.7.a10.7.�). Previously, these two
species had separate ranges. Now, their ranges are overlapping and there are documented cases
of these two species mating and producing viable offspring.
 Figure 10.7.
a10.7.�: Historically, grizzly bear habitat extended from Mexico through the western United States and
into the mid-latitudes of Canada. Since 2008, grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) have been spotted
farther north than their historic range, a possible consequence of climate change. Their range now
extends to the northern tip of Canada and throughout Alaska. As a result, grizzly bear habitat now
overlaps polar bear (Ursus maritimus) habitat. The two kinds of bears, which are capable of mating and
producing viable offspring, are considered separate species as historically they lived in different habitats
and never met. However, in 2006 a hunter shot a wild grizzly-polar bear hybrid known as a grolar bear,
the first wild hybrid ever found.

Climate gradients will also move up mountains, eventually crowding species higher in altitude
and eliminating the habitat for those species adapted to the highest elevations. Some climates
will completely disappear. The rate of warming appears to be accelerated in the arctic, which is
recognized as a serious threat to polar bear populations that require sea ice to hunt seals during
the winter months. Seals are a critical source of protein for polar bears. A trend to decreasing sea
ice coverage has occurred since observations began in the mid-twentieth century. The rate of
decline observed in recent years is far greater than previously predicted by climate models.

Changing climates also throw off the delicate timing adaptations that species have to seasonal
food resources and breeding times. Scientists have already documented many contemporary
mismatches to shifts in resource availability and timing. For example, pollinating insects
typically emerge in the spring based on temperature cues. In contrast, many plant species flower
based on daylength cues. With warmer temperatures occurring earlier in the year, but daylength
remaining the same, pollinators ahead of peak flowering. As a result, there is less food (nectar
and pollen) available for the insects and less opportunity for plants to have their pollen
dispersed. For migrating birds, timing is everything – they must arrive at their summer breeding
grounds when food supplies are at their peak, so that they can rebuild their body fat and
reproduce successfully. In some areas, birds are showing up early, before flowers open or insects
hatch, and finding very little to eat.

Ocean levels rise in response to climate change due to meltwater from glaciers and the greater
volume occupied by warmer water. Shorelines will be inundated, reducing island size, which will
have an effect on some species, and a number of islands will disappear entirely. Additionally, the
gradual melting and subsequent refreezing of the poles, glaciers, and higher elevation mountains
—a cycle that has provided freshwater to environments for centuries—will be altered. This could
result in an overabundance of salt water and a shortage of freshwater.

Finally, increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere react with ocean water to form
carbonic acid, a phenomenon called ocean acidification. In combination with warmer
temperatures, ocean acidification is responsible for coral bleaching, the process by which coral
expel the algae that typically conduct photosynthesis within the corals. Ocean acidification can
also dissolve the calcium carbonate skeletons formed by the coral. Overall, climate change plays
a major role in the loss of nearly one third of coral reefs.

10.8: Data Dive- Threats to Biodiversity

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Overview
Starting in 1998, the World Wildlife Federation (WWF) began publishing the Living Planet
Report. This report analyzes the health of the plant relative to the impact humanity has on it, and
is updated every two years. This report continually urges humanity, especially world leaders, to
work together to build a more sustainable, resilient, and healthy future for people and nature. In
the 2018 update, there was an overview of the major threats to biodiversity for several animal
families of concern. See the graph of their results below:
Figure 10.8.a10.8.�: Percent of biodiversity threats to various animal groups. Graph by Rachel
Schleiger (CC-BY-NC) modified from data in Living Planet Report 2018 Aiming Higher.

Questions
1. What is the independent (explanatory) variable and the dependent (response) variable?
2. What animal category above is most affected by habitat destruction? What about exploitation?
3. What category above has the largest impact (on average) on all species?
4. What is different for the fish data patterns compared to the other animal categories? Why?
5. How can the results of this graph to inform future conservation efforts?
6. Based on what you have learned in the chapter, list two other categories of life that you think
should be added to the graph. Provide at least one reason for each as to why you think it should
be added.

Raw Data From Above Graph(s)

Table 10.8.a10.8.�: Raw data for percent of biodiversity threats to various animal groups.
Graph by Rachel Schleiger (CC-BY-NC) modified from data in Living Planet Report 2018
Aiming Higher.
Animal Group Habitat Degradation Exploitation Inva

Birds 49 18 10

Reptiles/Amphibians 47 23 12

Mammals 45 38 9

Fish 28 55 5

10.9: Review
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Summary
After completing this chapter you should be able to...

 Describe biodiversity as the equilibrium of naturally fluctuating rates of extinction and

speciation.
 Summarize potential causes of mass extinctions and the associated biodiversity loss.
 Compare the present rate of extinction to the background extinction rate.
 Describe the causes and consequences of the sixth mass extinction.
 Describe how the loss of biodiversity is measured.
 Distinguish among the Red List categories.
 Name, define, and provide examples of the five major threats to biodiversity.
 Provide examples of the successes and failures of biological control in regulating invasive
species.

Five mass extinctions with losses of more than 50 percent of extant species are observable in the
fossil record. The sixth mass extinction is currently in progress with present-day extinction rates
much greater than the background extinction rate.

The core threats to biodiversity are human population growth and unsustainable resource use.
These are habitat loss, overexploitation, pollution, invasive species, and climate change. Habitat
loss occurs through deforestation, damming of rivers, and other activities. Water and
air pollution introduce toxic substances into the environment that harm plants and
animals. Overexploitation is a threat particularly to aquatic species, but the poaching of
terrestrial animals and overcollection of plants and fungi also puts species at risk. Invasive
species have been the cause of a number of extinctions and are especially damaging to islands
and lakes. Climate change is forcing range changes that can lead to extinction. It is also
affecting adaptations to the timing of resource availability that negatively affects species in
seasonal environments. Climate change will also raise sea levels, eliminating some islands and
reducing the area of all others.