INORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOTES

PERIOD 3 ELEMENTS • From Sulphur-chlorine, the diatomic

molecule has a lower molar mass than
The period 3 elements include the
sulphur therefore the magnitude of the
following.
Vander Waals forces is weaker hence
Symbol Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar low melting point.
Atomic 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Qn: Explain the trend of the following
No:
parameters across period 3 of the periodic
The period runs from sodium to Argon. The
table.
table below shows some physical
parameters of the elements involved. (a) Ionization energy
Table 1 (b) Electron affinity
1.Melting point (c) Electronegativity
This is a constant temperature at which an REACTIONS OF PERIOD 3 ELEMENTS
element in its solid state changes to liquid
state under constant pressure. 1. Chlorine

The abrupt change in melting point is Sodium and Magnesium when heated react
explained as: with chlorine to form ionic chlorides.

• From sodium- aluminium, the strong 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

metallic bonds have to be broken down. Mg(s) + Cl2(g) → MgCl2 (s)
The strength of the metallic bond
increases due to increase in the number Aluminium forms a covalent chloride which
of electrons used per atom and also due dimerises in the vapour phase.
to decrease to metallic radius.
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2AlCl3 (s)
• From Aluminium- Silicon, the increase Vaour phase
is due to the strong covalent bonds that 2AlCl3 (s) Al2Cl6 (g)
have to be broken for a giant atomic
Silicon, phosphorous and Sulphur also react
structure of Silicon where each silicon
with excess chlorine to form covalent
atom contributes four electrons
chlorides with simple molecular structure.
towards covalent bonding.
Si(s) + 2Cl2(g) → SiCl4(l)
• From Silicon-phosphorous, the
decrease is due to change from giant 2P(s) + 5Cl2(g) → 2PCl5(l)
atomic structure to molecular discrete
2P(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2PCl3(l)
structure where the molecules are held
by weak Vander Waals forces of 2S(l) + Cl2(g) → S2Cl2(l)
attraction.
In limited supply of oxygen, only phosphorus
• From phosphorous-Sulphur, these are reacts with chlorine to form Phosphorus (III)
discrete molecules which are as P4 and chloride.
S8 held by weak Vander Waals force
P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) → 4PCl3(s)
whose magnitude increases with
increase in molecular mass. Since the Qn: Explain why aluminium chloride is
molar mass of S8 is greater than that of covalent.
P4 therefore an increase in melting
point. 2. Oxygen
All the elements except chlorine react with
oxygen to form oxides.

AZABO KENNEDY 1
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOTES

2Na(s) + O2(g) → Na2O2(s) Phosphorous and Sulphur are oxidized to

their respective oxides and itself reduced to
2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → 2 MgO(s) nitrogen dioxide.
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s)
S(l) + 4HNO3(aq) → SO2(g) + NO2 (g) + 2H2O(l)
Si(s) + O2(g) → SiO2(s) P4(s) + 10HNO3(aq) + H2O (l) → 4H3PO4 (aq) +
4P(s) + 3O2(g) → P4O6 (s) 5NO2(g) + 5NO(g)

4P(s) + 5O2(g) → P4O10(s)

S(s) + O2(g) →SO2 (g) COMPOUNDS OF PERIOD 3 ELEMENTS

2S(s) + 3O2(g) → 2SO3(g) 1. Chlorides

3. Hydrogen Table 2

Sodium and Magnesium react vigorously Reaction of the chlorides with water
with hydrogen gas to form ionic hydrides. Sodium chloride and Magnesium chloride
2Na(s) + H2(g) → 2NaH (s) dissociate to form neutral aqueous solution.

Mg(s) + H2(g) → MgH2(s) Aluminium chloride undergoes hydrolysis

due to high charge density and aluminium
Aluminium, Silicon and Phosphorous do not ions become heavily hydrated in solution as
react with hydrogen gas. Al (H2O)63+
Chlorine and Sulphur form the The hydrated ions undergo hydrolysis to
corresponding covalent hydrides. Chlorine release a proton in solution which causes
reacts in presence of Sunlight or ultraviolet the solution to be acidic.
light.
Al(H2O)63+ (aq) [Al(H2O)5OH]2+ (aq) + H+ (aq)
Cl2(g) + H2 (g) → 2HCl(g)
S(l) + H2(g) → H2S(g) The other chlorides react with water to form
hydrogen chloride.
4. Acids
SiCl4 (l) + 2H2O(l) → SiO2(s) + 4HCl(g)
Sodium, Magnesium and Aluminium react
with dilute acids to form salts and hydrogen PCl5(l) + 4H2O(l) → H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(g)
gas i.e. hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid. 2S2Cl2(s) + 2H2O(l) → 3S(s) + SO2(g) + 4HCl
Other elements do not react with dilute (aq)
mineral acids. Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HOCl (aq)
Concentrated Nitric acid reacts violently 2. Oxides
with sodium and magnesium to form the
nitrate, water and nitrogen dioxide. Table 3

Na(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + NO2(g) + Reaction with water

H2O(l)
Sodium oxide is highly soluble in water.
Aluminium forms a layer of the oxide that
Na2O(s) + H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq)
prevents further reaction.
Magnesium Oxide is slightly soluble in water.
Silicon and Chlorine do not react with
concentrated nitric acid. MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2 (aq)

AZABO KENNEDY 2
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOTES

Silicon (IV) oxide and aluminium oxide do not • Cryolite NaAlF6

react with water. • Kaoline Al2Si2O7.2H2O
Oxides of Phosphorous, chlorine and Aluminium is commonly extracted from its
Sulphur are acidic oxide. ore called bauxite.
P4O10 (s) + 6H2O(l) → 4H3PO4 (aq) Impurities found in bauxite are:
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq) • Silica, SiO2
SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (aq) • iron(iii) oxide,Fe2O3.

Cl2O7(l) + H2O (l) → 2HClO4 (aq) The extraction process is divided into two
stages.
Reaction with sodium hydroxide solution
 Purification of the impure bauxite
Sodium and Magnesium oxide are basic
oxides therefore they do not react with The ore is first roasted at a low temperature
sodium hydroxide solution. to convert the iron (ii) oxide to iron (iii) oxide
and drive off the water of crystallization.
Al2O3(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2Al (OH)4-
(aq) 4FeO(s) + O2 → 2Fe2O3(S)

SiO2(s) + 2OH-(aq) →SiO32-(aq) + H2O(l) The roasted ore is then crushed or ground to
powder and heated with concentrated
SO2(g) + OH-(aq) → SO32-(aq) + H2O(l) sodium hydroxide solution to remove
aluminium oxide from the impurities. This
Cl2O7(l) + 2OH-(aq) → 2ClO4-(aq) + H2O(l)
dissolves aluminium oxide to form a
3. Hydrides solution of sodium aluminate.

Table 4 Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) →

2NaAl(OH)4-(aq)
The ionic hydrides react with water to form
hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
NaH(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq) + H2(g) The mixture of aluminate and the impurities
of silica and Iron (III) oxide is then filtered to
MgH2(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H2(g) obtain a distillate of aluminate and some few
AlH3(s) + 3H2O(l) → Al(OH)3(s) + 3H2(g) traces of silicate.

Phosphine does not react with water. The aluminate is then converted to
Hydride of silicon reacts with water in aluminium hydroxide by the following ways.
presence of a strong base. i.e. • Adding little sodium hydroxide. This
SiH4(g) + OH- (aq) + H2O(l) → SiO32-(aq) + precipitates aluminium hydroxide,
H2(g) and the process is called seeding.

Hydrogen Sulphide and Hydrogen chloride 2NaAl(OH)4-(aq) → Al(OH)3(s) + NaOH(aq)

reacts with water to form acidic solution. • Bubbling carbon dioxide in the
mixture and again, this precipitates
aluminium hydroxide.
EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM
2NaAl(OH)4-(aq) + CO2(g) → Al(OH)3(s) +
Aluminium can be extracted from the Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
following ores.
The insoluble aluminium hydroxide is
• Bauxite Al2O3. 2H2O filtered off, washed and dried.

AZABO KENNEDY 3
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOTES

The pure aluminium hydroxide is then replaced several times since it burns off in
heated to form pure aluminium oxide. oxygen produced.
2Al(OH)3(s) → Al2O3(s) + 3H2O(l) Aluminium is used for.
 Electrolysis of the pure aluminium ✓ Aircraft
oxide. ✓ Other transport vessels such as
ships' superstructures, container
The pure aluminium oxide is first mixed with vehicle bodies, tube trains
cryolite and then heated. Cryolite helps to ✓ Overhead power cables
lower the melting point of the aluminium ✓ Saucepans.
oxide. ✓ For construction
The molten aluminium oxide is then ✓ Packaging of finished goods
electrolysed in a steel tank at a temperature Useful properties of aluminium
of about 900∘C at a high current density
between graphite electrodes. ✓ Light,
✓ Resists corrosion,
The inside of the tank is lined with a sheet of ✓ Good appearance,
carbon and this forms the cathode while ✓ Good conductor of heat.
carbon rods which dip into the molten
electrolyte form the anode. FOR REACTIONS OF ALUMINIUM, CHECK
THE DIAGONAL RELATIONSHIP.
Molten aluminium sinks to the bottom at
the cathode whereby, Aluminium ions are Qn:
discharged at the cathode while oxygen is
liberated at the anode. During the extraction of aluminium, the ore
is first purified.
Cathode:
(a) (i). Write the name and formula of the
Al (aq) + 3e → Al(s)
3+
ore.
Anode: (ii). Name two main impurities in the ore.
2O2-(l) → O2(g) + 4e (b). Describe briefly how purification
process is carried.
In the process of the electrolysis, the
heated carbon reacts with the produced (c). Write an equation to show how
oxygen, so eating away the anode hence anhydrous aluminium chloride can be
consequently, it needs to be continuously obtained from aluminium.
replaced.
(d). Explain briefly Aluminium utensils
should not be washed using Soap.
(e). State any four uses of aluminium.

N.B. The disadvantage of using low voltage

is that a lot of energy is used, and anode is

AZABO KENNEDY 4
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOTES

DIAGONAL RELATIONSHIP E.g. NaO2, KO2, CsO2. They are formed by

only group 1 elements.
This is relationship within the periodic table
whereby certain elements in the second Peroxides are compounds that contain
period have a close chemical similarity to oxygen with oxidation state of -1.
their diagonal neighbours in the next group
of the third period. This is particularly E.g. Na2O2
noticeable with the following pairs. ✓ Both their nitrates decompose on
heating to form normal oxide,
Group I II III IV V
nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas.
Period 2 Li Be B C N
Period 3 Na Mg Al Si P 4LiNO3 (g) → 2Li2O(s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2(g)
• Lithium and Magnesium
2Mg (NO3)2(g) → 2MgO(s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2(g)
• Beryllium and Aluminium
• Boron and Silicon ✓ Both form carbonates that
decompose on heating.
Causes of diagonal relationship
Li2CO3(s) → Li2O(s) + CO2(g) MgCO3(s) →
The reasons why the chemistry of the above
MgO(s) + CO2(g)
3 pairs of elements resemble can be
summarized as follows: ✓ Both react with carbon when heated
to form ionic carbides.
• The cations in each pair have similar
4Li(s) + C(s) → Li4C(s)
charge densities & similar polarizing
2Mg(s) + C(s) → Mg2C(s)
powers.
• Similar electropositivities of the Resemblance between Beryllium and
elements. Aluminium
• Similar hydration energies of the
The chemistry of beryllium and aluminium
cations,
resemble in the following ways.
• Similar electrode potentials
✓ Both elements are passive to
Resemblance between Lithium &
concentrated nitric acid.
Magnesium
✓ Both elements react with
The chemistry of lithium and magnesium concentrated alkalis to form
resemble in the following ways: complexes.
✓ They too react with acids to form
✓ Both react directly with nitrogen on salts i.e. they are amphoteric.
heating to form nitrides.
6Li(s) + N2(g) → 2Li3N(s) Reaction with alkalis
3Mg(s) + N2(g) → Mg3N2(s)
Be(s) + 2OH- (aq) + 2H2O (l) → Be(OH)42- (aq)
✓ Both react with oxygen gas when
+ H2(g)
heated to form normal oxides.
4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s) 2Al(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 6H2O(l) → 2Al(OH)4-(aq) +
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) 3H2(g)
Normal oxides are oxides in which the Reaction with Acids
oxidation state of oxygen is -2.
Be(s) + 2H+ (aq) → Be2+(aq) + H2(g)
E.g. Na2O, MgO, CaO, H2O.
2Al (s) + 6H+ (aq) → 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)
Superoxides are oxides in which the
oxidation state of oxygen is -1/2. ✓ Both elements form chlorides which
are partly covalent and exist as
dimers in vapour phase.

AZABO KENNEDY 5
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOTES

✓ Their oxides are amphoteric as are

their hydroxides.
 Hydroxides:
Reaction of hydroxides with alkalis
Be (OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq) → Be(OH)42-(aq)
Al (OH)3(s) + OH- (aq) → Al (OH)-4(aq)
Reaction of hydroxides with acids
Be(OH)2(s) + 2H+ (aq) → Be2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Al(OH)3(s) + 3H+ (aq) → Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
 Oxides:
Reaction of oxides with alkalis
BeO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O (l) → Be(OH)42- (aq)
Al2O3(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 3H2O (l) → 2Al(OH)4-
(aq)
Reaction of oxides with acids
BeO(s) + 2H+ (aq) → Be2+(aq) + H2(g)
Al2O3(s) + 6H+ (aq) → 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
✓ Both their carbides hydrolyse in
water to form methane gas.
Be2C(s) + 4H2O(l) → 2Be(OH)2(s) + CH4(g)
Al4C3(s) + 12H2O(l) → 4Al (OH)3(s) + 3CH4 (g)

AZABO KENNEDY 6
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOTES

GROUP I AND II (S-BLOCK ELEMENTS) This is the net charge that can be created on
an atom when all other atoms bonded to it
The elements in this block have their valence have been removed as ions with a noble gas
electrons placed in the S-orbital. The outer configuration.
most configurations are:
The elements easily lose their valence
Group I (Alkali metals) -nS1 electron to form positively charged ions
Group II (Alkaline earth metals)-nS2, where n therefore the oxidation state of group I and II
is principal quantum number. is +1 and +2 respectively.

The physical properties include: Qn: Explain why group II elements are
divalent.
Group I
Hydration energy
This is the energy evolved when one mole of
a gaseous ion is completely surrounded by
water molecules to form an infinitely dilute
solution.
The magnitude of hydration energy depends
on:
✓ Ionic charge

✓ Ionic radius
Group II
The lower the charge density, the weaker the
attraction for the water molecules hence the
lower the hydration energy
Down the group hydration energy decreases
due to an increase in ionic radius
The hydration energy of group II elements is
more negative than those of group I because
of higher charge and smaller ionic radius.

Electrode potential ( E  )

Melting point The standard electrode potentials values

increase down the group. This is due to
Group II elements have higher melting point decrease ionization energy and atomization
than group I because they contribute two energy (endothermic processes) which is
electrons for delocalization unlike group I exceeded by hydration energy (exothermic
which contributes only one electron. process) i.e. becomes more negative.
Therefore, the metallic radius of group II
elements is smaller than those for group However, the standard electrode potential of
making the metallic bond to be stronger. lithium is higher than expected due to high
hydration energy caused by high charge
Density density of lithium ions.
The alkali metals are less dense due to larger The electrode potential of group II elements
atomic radius and weaker metallic lattice. is more negative despite hydration energy
because endothermic processes
Oxidation state
(atomization and ionization energy) have

AZABO KENNEDY 7
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOTES

low value which is exceeded by exothermic Since the metals are electropositive, the
process (hydration energy). oxidation state of hydrogen in the hydrides
is -1.
Born-Harber cycle relating the energy
changes is: 2. WATER
Hat All the elements except Beryllium react with
M(s) M (g) water with increasing vigour down the group
to liberate hydrogen gas.
I.E
Reactivity of group (II) elements with water
increases down the group as atomic radius
M+ (g) increases due to increase of Electro
Eo
positivity.
Hh
Magnesium reacts slowly with cold water
but vigorously with steam.
QN M +(aq)
Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2 (g)
Draw the born- Harber cycle for relating Calcium, Barium Strontium reacts readily
standard electrode, E  , atomization with water to form the hydroxide and
energy, H at , ionization energy, I.E and hydrogen gas.
Hydration energy, H h X(s) + 2H2O(l) → X(OH)2 (aq) + H2(g)
The standard electrode potential for Where X= Ca, Ba and Sr.
conversion of each metal to its ion is
All group I elements readily react with cold
positive (endothermic) thus S- block
water to form strong alkaline solution e.g.
elements are reducing agents.
2K (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Group I elements are stronger reducing
elements than Group II and the tendency 3. ACIDS
increases as you move down the group.
Group I elements react violently with dilute
Qns: mineral acids to form salt and hydrogen gas.
a). State three energy factors which make 2M(s) + 2H+(aq) → M+(aq) + H2(g)
group I elements stronger reducing agent
than Group II elements. Group II elements react but the reaction
becomes more vigorous down the group
b).Explain briefly why Potassium is a except with dilute sulphuric acid. e.g.
stronger reducing agent than Sodium.
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
Calcium, Strontium and Barium react slowly
REACTIONS OF S-BLOCK ELEMENTS with dilute sulphuric acid due to formation of
sparingly soluble salt which prevent further
1. HYDROGEN
reaction e.g.
The hot metals react with dry hydrogen gas
Ba(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + H2 (g)
to form ionic hydrides i.e.
Magnesium, Calcium and Barium react with
2Na (s) + H2 (g) → 2NaH (s)
very dilute nitric acid to liberate hydrogen
Mg (s) + H2 (g) → MgH2 (s) gas e.g.
Mg (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Mg (NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

AZABO KENNEDY 8
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOTES

Qn: Compare the reaction of beryllium and The anhydrous chlorides are ionic except
barium with sulphuric acid. beryllium chloride which is covalent.
4. OXYGEN NOTE: Beryllium behaves differently from
the rest of the elements due:
Group II elements form normal oxides .i.e.
• Small atomic radius
2M (s) + O2 (g) → 2MO(s)
However, barium and Strontium can form • High charge density
peroxides when the normal oxide is heated
• Low electro positivity
in more oxygen .e.g.
2BaO (s) + O2 (g) → 2BaO2 (s) • High polarizing power

Group I elements burn in excess oxygen to COMPOUNDS OF S-BLOCK ELEMENTS

form variable oxides .i.e. Group I compounds are more ionic than the
Lithium forms only a normal oxide .i.e. corresponding compounds of group II.

4 Li (s) + O2 (g) → 2 Li2O (s) This is because the cations of group II have
smaller ionic radius than corresponding
Sodium forms a yellow normal peroxide .i.e. group I. Also group II cations are doubly
2Na (s) + O2 (g) → Na2O2 (s) charged while those of group I are singly
Potassium, Caesium and Rubidium form charged. Therefore, cations of group II have
super oxides when burnt in excess in oxygen higher charge density and more polarizing
e.g. power than corresponding group I cations.
As such compounds of group II are less ionic
K (s) + O2 (g) → KO2(s) than corresponding group I compound. e.g.
Magnesium chloride is less ionic than
All the oxides are basic except beryllium
Sodium chloride.
oxide which is amphoteric .i.e.
The salts of group II elements are less
BeO(s) + 2 H+ (aq) → Be2+ (aq) + H2O (l)
soluble in water than group I. Solubility of
BeO(s) + 2OH- (aq) + H2O (l) → Be (OH)42-(aq) ionic compounds in water is affected by
lattice energy and hydration energy i.e.
The peroxides form hydroxides and hydrogen
peroxides when dissolved in water. H s = H h + U Where H s is the
enthalpy of solution.
Na2O2(s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2O2(aq)
The super oxides liberate oxygen gas, H h Is hydration energy.
hydrogen peroxide and the hydroxide when
dissolved in water. U Is lattice energy.

2KO2(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH (aq)+ O2 (g) + H2O2 Lattice energy U

(aq)
This is the energy required to decompose 1
5. CHLORINE (HALOGENS) mole of an ionic salt into its constituent
gaseous ions.
The hot metals directly combine with
chlorine to form ionic halides except NaCl(s) → Na+(g) + Cl-(g) H = Lattice energy
beryllium i.e. OR
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → NaCl (s) It is the amount of energy given out when 1
mole of an ionic salt is formed from its
Ca (s) + Cl2(g) → CaCl2 (s)
constituent gaseous ions.

AZABO KENNEDY 9
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOTES

Na+(g) + Cl-(g) → NaCl(s) H = Lattice energy. Qn: (a). Describe how sodium hydroxide is
prepared on a large scale.
Hydration energy:
(b). Explain how sodium hydroxide pellets
This is the amount of energy released when
react with air.
1 mole of gaseous ions is fully dissolved in
water at a given temperature. Soln:
Na+(g) + aq → Na+(aq) H = Hydration energy. (a) It is prepared by electrolysis of brine using
Mercury cathode.
Hydration energy has a negative ΔH sign
because it involves release of heat energy. At the cathode, Na+ ions are discharged
instead of H+ ions because of the high
Soluble salts have negative enthalpy of concentration of the Brine. The sodium thus
solution. The more negative the enthalpy of formed dissolves in the mercury surface to
solution the more soluble the salt. form Sodium amalgam. The sodium
Some hydrated salts e.g. hydrated copper amalgam then flows out and mixes with
(II) sulphate crystals dissolve water to form a mixture of hydrogen gas,
endothermically while anhydrous salt sodium hydroxide and mercury.
dissolves exothermically. NaHg(l) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) +
This is because for hydrated salt, the ions 2Hg (l)
are already partly hydrated therefore The mixture is then heated, and sodium
hydration energy is lost thus when the hydroxide is then stable at high temperatures
crystals are dissolved in water this hence it is formed.
hydration energy is not enough to outweigh
lattice energy. For anhydrous salt, the b). It is deliquescent hence absorbs water to
hydration energy is readily available and form sodium hydroxide solution which
able to outweigh lattice energy. reacts with carbon dioxide to form sodium
carbonate and in excess a white crystal of
Qn: Given the following thermo-chemical sodium hydrogen carbonate is formed . I.e.
data.
2NaOH(s) + CO2(g) → Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Salt Hydration Lattice
energy (KJmol-1) energy Na2CO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) → 2NaHCO3
(KJmol-1) (s)
AX 880 860
Group II hydroxides are sparingly soluble
BX 790 800
and are prepared by precipitation method.
State which salt is more soluble and explain
i.e.
your answer.
M2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) → M (OH)2 (s)
1. HYDROXIDES
They can also be prepared by dissolving a
The hydroxides of Group I elements are all
normal oxide of the metal in water. e.g.
white solids and deliquescent except
lithium hydroxide. They dissolve in water CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s)
exothermically to form strong alkaline
solution. Qn: Explain why beryllium hydroxide cannot
be prepared by precipitation method.
The hydroxides become more soluble down
the group due to increasing ionic radius of Soln: Because Beryllium hydroxide is
the cation which decreases the lattice amphoteric and therefore it forms complex.
energy. Be(OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq) →
Be(OH)42- (aq)

AZABO KENNEDY 10
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOTES

The table below shows the solubility of the sulphates down the group is attributed to
hydroxides of group II elements. the fact that the hydration energy of the
sulphates decreases more rapidly than the
Hydroxide Solubility at 25oC lattice energy down the group.

Be(OH)2 0.00 N B. The trend is similar forCO32-, CrO42-,

Mg(OH)2 0.01 PO43- , and Cl-
Ca(OH)2 0.015
2. CARBONATES AND HYDROGEN
Sr(OH)2 0.89 CARBONATES
Ba(OH)2 3.32
The carbonates of group I metals are white
solids; readily dissolve in water and are
Down the group, the radius of the cations unaffected by heat except lithium
increases while the charge on them remains carbonate which decomposes on heating.
the same. This leads to a decrease in both
the lattice and hydration energies. But the Li2CO3(s) → Li2O(s) + CO2(g)
decrease in lattice energy of the hydroxides
Explanation
is more rapid than the decrease in hydration
energy. As such the lattice energy is easily Li+ ion has a very small radius giving it a
superseded by the hydration energy thus high charge density and a high polarizing
facilitating solubility of the hydroxides. power. As such the Li+ ion is capable of
forming a stable compound with an oxide
N.B. The trend is similar for fluoride ions (F-)
ion. However, as the group is descended the
SULPHATES OG GROUP I AND GROUP II radii of the cations increase and their
charged densities decrease. Thus, they
Sulphates of group I are white solids which cannot easily be accommodated around
are stable to heat and are readily soluble in the smaller oxide ion due to its high
water. Sulphates of group II are white solids polarizing effect.
and sparingly soluble in water.
Carbonates of group II decompose on
The table below shows the solubility of heating to form the metal oxide and carbon
sulphates of group II elements. dioxide gas.
Sulphates Solubility MCO3(s) → MO(s) + CO2(g) Where M= (Be,
BeSO4 4095.24 Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba)
MgSO4 3600
The thermal stability of the carbonates
CaSO4 11.0
increases as the group is descended.
SrSO4 0.62
BaSO4 0.009 Group I elements form soluble carbonates
except lithium carbonate.

Trend The carbonates are prepared by bubbling

carbon dioxide through the hydroxide
The solubility of the sulphates decrease solution to precipitate the less soluble
down the group hydrogen carbonate which on heating
decomposes to anhydrous carbonate.
Explanation
Group II carbonates are insoluble in water
Down the group, the radius of the cations
and undergo thermo-decomposition to form
increases while the charge on them remains
oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
the same. This leads to a decrease in both
the lattice and hydration energies. The carbonates are prepared by addition of
Therefore, the decrease in solubility of the sodium carbonate solution to the solution

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 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOTES

containing the metal ion I.e. precipitation The carbonates of Potassium, Sodium,
e.g. Rubidium and Caesium are stable and do
not decompose on heating.
Ba2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) → BaCO3 (aq)
Qn: Explain why Lithium carbonate
THERMOSTABILITY OF CARBONATES, decomposes while other carbonates of
NITRATES AND HYDROXIDE group I do not.

The stability of the ionic compound depends Qn:

on the standard lattice energy.
(a). Explain why Sodium carbonate is used
Lattice energy is affected by: as a base in acid-base titration.
• Ionic charge, the greater the charge on b) i). State and explain what is observed
the ion, the greater the stronger the when sodium carbonate solution is added
attraction between the ions thus lattice to aluminium chloride solution.
energy increases with ionic charge.
(ii). Write the equation of reaction in b (i)
• Ionic radius, smaller ions closely
approach each other in the lattice thus The table below shows the decomposition
increasing the lattice energy. temperatures for group II carbonates.
NITRATES: Carbon BeC Mg Ca SrC BaC
ate O3 CO3 CO3 O3 O3
The nitrates of group I decompose to nitrites Temper 100 350 900 129 130
and oxygen gas except lithium nitrate. i.e. ature 0 0
(oC)
2NaNO3(s) → 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
Explanation
Lithium nitrate forms Lithium oxide, brown
fumes of nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas on On descending the group, the charge
heating. densities of the metal cations progressively
decrease due to increase in cationic radius.
4LiNO3 (s) →2Li2O(s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2(g) Since an oxide is smaller than a carbonate
ion, the decomposition of metal carbonates
Qn :Explain why Sodium nitrite is more
becomes less energetically favourable down
stable than Sodium nitrate.
the group.
Soln:
COMPLEX FORMATION
Because in Sodium nitrite, the nitrite ion has
Complex ion formation is favoured by:
a smaller relative to the nitrate thus it forms
a stable lattice. • High charge density of the cations I.e.
Small and highly charges cations easily
However, for group II nitrates, the oxide ion attract the lone pair of electrons in the
is smaller and more highly charged than ligand ( donor atom )
nitrites therefore the nitrates of group II
elements decompose to metal oxide, • Presence of suitable vacant orbital to
nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas. e.g. accommodate the lone pairs of
electrons from ligand to form a dative
2Mg (NO3)2 (s) → 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) bond.

CARBONATES

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Down the group, the tendency to form Qn: Explain why Magnesium chloride
complexes decreases due to decrease in solution has a PH less than seven.
charge density.
Reactions in which beryllium resembles
The Be2+ion has the highest charge density in other group ii elements include:
the group and thus forms complex ions.
• Burns in air to form normal oxide.
Examples of complexes formed include: • Reacts with chlorine gas when
heated to form chloride.
Be (H2O)42+ , Be(H2O)42- , BeF42+ , Al(H2O)63+ • Reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid
liberating hydrogen gas.
HYDROLYSIS OF SALTS
Reactions in which beryllium differs from
Hydrolysis is the reaction of salts with water other group ii metals include:
molecules which results in change Ph.
• Beryllium reacts with conc. alkalis,
The large group I and II metals are hydrated
but other group II elements do not.
in solution and their salts don’t undergo
• Beryllium oxide is amphoteric i.e.
hydrolysis.
shows both basic and acidic
properties, but other oxides of the
However, the carbonates and hydrogen
carbonate of Sodium and potassium group II elements are basic in
undergo hydrolysis to form alkaline solution. nature.
• Beryllium carbide reacts with water
Qn: Explain why sodium carbonate is used in to form methane.
acid-base titration. • Beryllium chloride is partly covalent
and exists as dimer in vapour state.
Salts containing cations of high charge Other members form ionic
density undergo hydrolysis e.g. Soluble chlorides.
beryllium salt exists as Be(H2O)42+ in
aqueous solution which hydrolyses to
release a proton which causes the solution
to be acidic.

Be(H2O)42+(aq) [Be(H2O)3OH]+(aq)
+ H+(aq)

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Table 1
Elements Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Melting point 98 651 660 1410 44 114 -101 -189

Electronegativity 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0

Ionization energy 502 745 587 792 1020 1000 1260 1530
Atomic radius 1.57 1.36 1.28 1.17 1.10 1.04 0.99
Electron Affinity 2.0 -6.7 3.0 13.5 6.0 20.0 36.4
Oxidation states +1 +2 +3 +4 +3, +5 -2, +4, +6, +1, +3, -
1, +5, +7
Structure Close Close Close Giant Discrete molecular structure
packed packed packed molecular

Table 3
Oxides Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO2 , Cl2O7
Na2O2 SO3
Bond Ionic Covalent

Nature Basic Amphoteric

Acidic

Structure Giant ionic Giant

molecular Simple molecular

Table 4
Hydrides NaH MgH2 AlH3 SiH4 PH3 H2S HCl

Bond
Ionic Covalent
Structure Giant ionic Simple molecular

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Table 2
Chlorides NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4 PCl3 , PCl5 S2Cl2, SCl2 Cl2
b.p.t 1465 1418 423 57 74, 164 138 -35
Bond ionic Ionic
Covalent
structure Giant Giant Simple molecular structure
ionic ionic

AZABO KENNEDY 15