22ME230 - METAL CASTING

AND FORMING PROCESSES

Expendable & Permanent

Mould Casting Processes

Dr.C. Paramasivam
Professor/Mech.
 Expd. Expd.
CO Course Outcome Statement TPS
Profic. Attain.
Describe process parameters and equipment of
CO1 metal casting, forming, plastic moulding and TPS2 70 70
additive processes
Select a suitable casting process with its
CO2 process parameters for the stated requirements TPS3 70 65
Determine the forming forces for metal-forming
CO3 processes such as forging, rolling, and TPS3 70 65
extrusion
Select a suitable forming process with its
CO4 process parameters for the stated requirements TPS3 70 65
Propose the remedial measures for various
CO5 TPS3 70 65
defects in the cast and formed products
Perform a comparative study of various
methods of casting or forming process(es) for a
CO6 TPS3 70 65
given product or component.
 22ME230-METAL CASTING
AND FORMING PROCESSES

What is Manufacturing?
 The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words
manus (hand) and factus (make); the combination means
“made by hand”
 It encompasses (1) Design of the product (2) selection of
raw materials (3) Sequence of operations.
 Most modern manufacturing operations are accomplished
by mechanized and automated equipment that is
supervised by human workers.
 Basic Manufacturing Processes

 1. Casting: (Melting of metal and pour it in to cavity of

desired shape and size).
 2. Metal Forming and shaping: (Plastic Deformation
Process- Rolling, Forging, Extrusion, Drawing, Sheet
Forming)
 3. Machining: (Removing the excess material by relative
movement between cutting tool and work piece by means of
Turning, Boring, Milling, Planning, Broaching operations
etc.)
 4. Joining: (Assembling different parts or components.
Ex: welding, brazing , soldering )
 5. Finishing: (Honing, Lapping, Polishing, burnishing,
deburring, coating and plating etc.)
Schematic illustration of various casting processes
Schematic illustration of various bulk deformation processes
Schematic illustration of various sheet metal forming processes
Schematic illustration of various joining processes
Schematic illustrations of various machining and finishing processes
Metal-Casting Processes
 Products made by Casting

 Typical products made by casting:

IC engine blocks, crankshafts, hubcaps, power tool
housings, turbine blades, plumbing parts, zipper teeth,
dies and molds, gears, wheels, propellers, office
equipment, and statues, Carburetors, agricultural and
railroad equipment, pipes and plumbing fixtures, gun
barrels, frying pans, jewelry, orthopedic implants, and
very large components for hydraulic turbines.
(b)
Summary of Casting Processes
Characteristics of Casting
 Introduction
Traditional Process
Most Versatile Process
 No Limit to shape and size of the part
Production Cost is low
 All Metal can be casted. Iron is most commonly
used
 Good Fluidity
 Small Shrinkage
 Easy to Control its properties
Definition:
 Involves pouring of molten metal in to a Cavity or
Mould of desired shape & size and allowing it to cool
and solidify.
Required Moulding Sand which can withstand high
temperature.
 Capabilities and advantages
1. It can create complex & Large part
geometries.
2. It can create both external and internal
shapes.
3. Some casting processes are Net shape &
others are Near net shape parts output.
4. Some casting methods are suited to mass
production.
 Disadvantages of Casting

Different disadvantages for different casting

processes:
1. Limitations on mechanical properties.
2. Poor dimensional accuracy and
surface finish for some processes;
e.g., sand casting.
3. Safety hazards to workers due to hot
molten metals.
4. Environmental issues.
 Parts Made by Casting

 Big parts
 Engine blocks and heads for automotive
vehicles, wood burning stoves, machine
frames, railway wheels, pipes, church
bells, big statues, pump housings
 Small parts
 Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues,
frying pans
 Overview of Casting Technology

 Casting is usually performed in a foundry, which is a

factory equipped for,
1. Making molds
2. Melting and handling molten metal
3. Performing the casting process
4. Cleaning the finished casting
 Workers who perform casting are called foundrymen
 Mold in Casting

 It contains cavity whose geometry determines part

shape required,
1. Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly
enlarged to allow for shrinkage of metal during
solidification and cooling
2. Molds are made of a variety of materials,
including sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal etc.
 Open Molds and Closed Molds

 Two forms of mold: (a) open mold and (b) closed mold for
more complex mold geometry with gating system leading into
the cavity
Sand Casting Mold
 Terminology for Sand Casting Mold

 Mold consists of two halves:

1. Cope is an upper half of mold
2. Drag is bottom half
3. Mold halves are contained in a box,
called a flask.
4. Two halves separate at the parting
line
 Two Categories of
Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes – here, the mold is
sacrificed in order to remove part.
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
 Disadvantage: production rates often limited by
the time to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes – here, the mold is
made of metal and can be used to make many
castings.
 Advantage: higher production rates
 Disadvantage: geometries are limited by the
needs to open the mold
3. Composite molds:
1. Composite molds, which are made of two or more
different materials (such as sand, graphite, and
metal) combining the advantages of each material.
2. These molds have a permanent and an expendable
portion and are used in various casting processes
3. To improve mold strength, control the cooling rates,
and optimize the overall economics of the casting
process.
 Overview of Sand Casting

1. Most widely used casting process, accounting for a

significant majority of total tonnage cast.
2. Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including
metals with high melting temperatures, such as
steel, nickel, and titanium.
3. Castings range in size from small to very large.
4. Production quantities from one to millions.
Large Sand casting parts
 Steps in Sand Casting
1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
5. Separate gating and riser system
6. Heat treatment of cast product is sometimes
required to improve metallurgical properties
 Sand Casting Production Sequence

 Production sequence in sand casting, including

pattern-making and mold-making
 Pattern
1. Full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged size to
account for shrinkage and machining allowances in the
casting.
2. A pattern is a mold-forming tool.
3. A pattern is model or the replica (model) of the object to
be casted. Except for the various allowances a pattern
exactly resembles the casting to be made.
4. A pattern may be defined as a model or a form around
which molding material is packed to give a shape of
cavity known as mold cavity in which molten metal
is to be poured.
 Functions of Pattern

1. A Pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making the

casting.
2. Runner, gates and risers (used for introducing and feeding metal to
the mold cavity) may form a part of the pattern.
3. A pattern may help in establishing locating points on the mold and
therefore on the casting with a purpose to check the casting
dimensions.
4. Patterns properly made and having smooth surfaces reduce
casting defects.
5. Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the
castings.
 Difference between Pattern
and casting
 The main difference between a pattern and the casting is as
regards their dimensions. A pattern is slightly larger in size as
compared to the casting because a pattern:
1. It carries Shrinkage allowance.
2. It is given a Machining allowance to clean and finish the required
surfaces.
3. It carries a Draft allowance of the order of 1 and 3 degrees.
4. Pattern may not have all holes and slots which a casting have.
5. Pattern may be two or three pieces whereas a casting is one full
6. Pattern and the casting also differ with regards to the material
out of which they are made.
Selection of Pattern Materials based on:
1. No. of Casting to be produced.
2. Desired Level of Dimensional Accuracy and surface
finish.
3. Shape and Size of Casting.
4. Design and fine details of the casting.
5. Type of Moulding Processes.
6. Method of Moulding (Sand or Machine moulding).
 Materials for making Patterns
Patterns may be constructed out of the following materials. Different
materials have their own advantages and, limitations and field of
applications.
1. Wood
2. Metal
3. Plastic
4. Plaster
5. Wax
1. Wood
 Wood is the most common martial for making Pattern. Following wood
may be used for making patterns.
 a) White Pine b) Mahogany c) Teak d) Deodar e) Shisham f) Kail
g) Maple
Advantages
1. Inexpensive
2. Easily available
3. Light in weight
4. Easy to machines
5. Wood patterns can be repaired easily.
6. Easy to obtain good surface finish.
7. Can be preserved for quite long times with
the help of wood preservatives (eg.
shellac).
Disadvantages
1. Chance of shrinkage is more.
2. It is affected by moisture. It changes its shape
when the moisture dries out of it.
3. Abraded (roughed) by sand action.
4. Poor wear resistance.
2. Metal
– Metal patterns are used when large number of
castings are desired or when conditions are too
severe for wooden pattern. Metal patterns are
cast from wooden patterns or machined to
shape.
Advantages
1. Don not absorb moisture. So they retain their shape.
2. Possess more life (Durable).
3. Do not warp(bend or damage).
4. Can withstand rough handling(strong).
5. They possess great resistance to abrasion.
6. Accurate patterns can be made.
7. Easy to obtain good surface finish.
Disadvantages
1. Expensive, Ferrous patterns get rusted, Heavy.
2. Cannot be machined so easily as wooden ones.
 Following metals may be used for making
of patterns.
a) Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys b) Steel
c) Cast Irion d) Brass(Cu-Zn-Alloy
e) White Metal
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
Advantages
1. Best Pattern material.
2. Excellent resistance to corrosion.
3. Good surface finish can be obtained.
4. Good Machinability.
5. Possess good wear resistance and strength.
Disadvantages
1. Do not withstand rough handling.
2. Poor reparability.
3. Plastic
Two type of plastic type are used in
patternmaking. They are:
1) Thermosetting eg. Epoxy resin.
2) Thermoplastic eg. Polystyrene Foam.

Advantages
1. Do not absorb moisture.
2. Possess more life (Durable).
3. Strong.
4. Abrasion resistant.
5. Accurate patterns can be made.
6. Do not stick to mold material.
Disadvantage
1. Fragile.
 4. Plaster
Eg. Plaster of Paris.
Advantages
1. Intricate shapes can be cast.
2. High compressive strength.
3. Unlike metals , it expands while solidifying. So no
shrinkage allowance may be given on the
pattern.
5. Wax
Advantages
1.Good surface finish can be obtained.
2.Accurate patterns can be made.
Water Cooled metal mould or die
Very good surface finish and high accuracy
Investment Casting or Lost wax Process
 Pattern Allowances:

Pattern is not made dimensionally identical with the

casting, due to various Reasons:
1. All metal shrink in size when there is a change from liquid
to solid state.
2. Require surface finish.
3. Removed from the mould cavity without tearing the
mould cavity surface.
4. Casting tend to warp or distort during cooling stage.
 Types of Pattern Allowances

1. Shrinkage allowance:
 Given on Pattern size for avoiding any change in dimensions
of casting
Shrinkage allowances of different metals are given below:
1. Grey Cast Iron : 6.95 to 10.4 mm/m
2. Malleable Cast Irion : 10.4 mm/m
3. Steel : 20.8 mm/m
4. Aluminum : 17 mm/m
5. Brass : 15.3 mm/m
6. Bronze : 10.4 to 20.8 mm/m
Example:
 Steel castings are to be produced from a brass pattern
which is to be made from a wooden pattern. If one of the
dimensions of the component as per its drawing is
75 mm. Calculate the correct dimension on the wooden
pattern considering the shrinkage allowance only.
Solution:
Allowance for brass = 75 x 15.3 = 1.1475 mm
1000
Allowance for steels = 75 x 20.8 = 1.56 mm
1000
Therefore the total shrinkage allowance = 1.14175 + 1.56 =
2.7075 mm
Thus the dimension on the wooden pattern will be =
75mm+2.7mm=77.7mm
 2. Finishing allowance or Machining
allowance
Allowance for machining is to be provided because:
1. Castings get oxidized in the mold and during
heat treatment. Scales formed need to be
removed.
2. In order to remove surface roughness and other
imperfections.
3. In order to achieve exact casting dimensions.
4. In order to achieve required surface finish.

Allowances given for finishing or machining

rough surface of the cast product.
1. Ferrous metal = 3 mm
2. Non-ferrous metal = 1.5 mm
Also, machining Allowance should be provided depends on the
following factors:
1. Nature of metal i.e Ferrous or non-ferrous. Only ferrous metals
get oxidized.
2. Molding process to be employed.
3. Size and shape of casting required.
4. The type of machining operation required.
5. The degree of surface finish required on the finished part.
 3. Draft allowance or Taper allowance
Taper allowed on Vertical faces of a pattern.
Easy removal of the pattern with out damaging
the mould cavity surface.
Draft of 3 to 6 mm/m is generally adopted.

Taper depends on:

 Shape and size of pattern
 Molding Method
 Mold Materials
4. Distortion or Camber Allowance
Due to internal stresses developed during
cooling. Generally, cast product will distort or
warp when,
1. Casting is of irregular shape
2. All volume of the body do not shrink uniformly
3. The arms possess unequal thickness
4. One portion of the casting cools at a faster rate as
compared to the other.
 Distortion can be practically eliminated by
providing an distortion allowance. The amount
of distortion may vary from 2 mm to 20 mm
depending upon the size & shape and
material of the casting.
 5. Shaking allowance or
Rapping allowance
 For easy withdrawal of the pattern from
the moulding sand, the pattern is
slightly rapped around the vertical
faces.

 Shaking allowance is given to

overcome this problem, by making the
pattern slightly smaller in size.
Types of Patterns
Types of Patterns
1. Solid or Single piece Pattern
2. Split Pattern
3. Loose Piece Pattern
4. Match Plate Pattern
5. Cope and Drag Pattern
6. Sweep Pattern
7. Gated Pattern
8. Skeleton Pattern
9. Segmental Pattern
10. Follow Board Pattern
 Types of patterns used in sand casting: (a) solid
pattern, (b) split pattern, (c) match-plate pattern, (d)
cope and drag pattern
 1. Solid Pattern or Single Piece Pattern

 Simplest, made with out any joints, partings or loose pieces.

 Inexpensive used for large castings of simple shape.
 It is the simplest form of pattern exactly like the desired
casting.
 When using this type of patterns, molding operations like
cutting of runners and risers has to be done manually
separately.
 So mould process is inconvenient and time consuming.
 Hence, such patterns are used for producing few large
castings of simple shape.
 For making the mold, the pattern is
accommodated entirely in either cope or
drag.
 One piece Pattern is made from one piece
and does not contain loose pieces or joints.
 One piece Pattern is usually made of wood
or metal depending up on the casting to be
produced.
 Stuffing box of a steam engine is an
example of one piece Pattern.
 2. Split Pattern

 Many patterns cannot be made in a single piece.

 For example withdrawing the pattern from the mold etc. To eliminate
this difficulty and for castings of intricate shape or unusual shape, split
patterns are employed to form the mold.
 These patterns are made in two parts. So that one part will produce the
lower half of the mold and the other, the upper half.
 The two parts which may or may not be the same size are held in the
proper relative positions by means of dowel pins.
 The line of separation of two parts is called the Parting Line and the
surface formed at the line of separation of two parts is called Parting
Surface. This will also be the parting surface of the mould.
 Patterns for still more intricate castings are made in more than two
piece for facilitating molding operation and withdrawing pattern. The
flask between cope flask and drag flask is called Cheek.
3. Loose Piece Pattern
 Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once they are embedded
in the molding sand.
 Such patterns are usually made with one or loose pieces for
facilitating their removal from the molding box and are known
as Loose Piece Patterns.
 Loose piece remain attached with the main body of the pattern
with the help of dowel pins.
 Loose piece pattern involve more labour and consume more
time in molding operation.
4. Match Plate Pattern
 Match Plate Pattern consists of a Match Plate, on either side
of which a number of split patterns are mounted.
 A number of different sized and shaped patterns may be
mounted on one match plate.

 The Match Plate has runner and gates attached with it. After
the cope and drag have been rammed with molding sand,
the match plate is removed from the mould.
 Cope and Drag are then assembled and this completes the
mould.
 Match Plate Pattern are usually preferred for producing
small castings on mass scale.
 Piston Rings of IC Engines are produced using Match Plate Pattern.
5. Cope and Drag Pattern

 In Cope and Drag pattern, the pattern is split about a suitable

and convenient surface or line.
 Each half of the plate is fixed to a separate wood/metal plate.
Each metal plate will be having provisions for runners and
gates.
 Each half of the pattern is molded separately in a separate
molding box by an independent molder or molders.
 The two molds of each half of the pattern are finally
assembled and the mold is ready for pouring.
 Cope and Drag Pattern is another form of Split Pattern.
 In the production of large castings, the complete moulds are
difficult to be handle by a single operator. Therefore cope and
drag pattern is used to ease this problem.
6. Sweep Pattern
 Sweep Pattern is preferred for producing large
castings of circular sections and symmetrical
shapes.
 Sweep Pattern consists of a wooden board
having a shape corresponding to the shape of the
desired casting and arranged to rotate about a
central axis.
 When the board is rotated about the axis mold
cavity of the desired shape is obtained in the
mold.
 Sweep Pattern avoids the necessity of making
full, large castings of circular sections and costly
three dimensional pattern.
 Sweep Pattern saves a lot of time as compared
to make a full pattern.
 Manufacture of large kettles of cast iron requires
Sweep Pattern.
7. Gated Pattern
 To produce a good casting, it is necessary to ensure that
molten metal flows into every part of the mold.
 Provision of easy passage of the flowing metal into mold is
called gating which cannot be made by hand operations high
volume production because of the time involved.
 In Gated Pattern group of patterns are attached with gates and
runners to facilitate easy flow of molten metal. The time
spends for cutting the gates and runners is eliminated by this
arrangement. Gated Patterns are used for the production of
small castings on a mass scale.
8. Skeleton Pattern
 For large casting having simple geometrical shapes (for
example water pipes, turbine casings etc.), Skeleton Pattern
are used.
 These are simple frames that outline the shape of the part to be
cast. The frame work is filled with loam sand and rammed.
 The sand must be true and smooth. Hence a board called
Strickle Board is used to shape the sand. For pattern made in
two halves are joined by means of screws or with glue etc.
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
9. Segmental Pattern
 The segmented pattern is similar to Sweep Pattern in the sense
that both types employ a part of a complete pattern for getting the
required shape of the pattern.
 The segmented pattern is in the form a segment and is used for
producing circular shapes.
 To create, it is rotated about the post in the same way as sweep
pattern. But it is not revolved continuously about the post to
prepare the mold. When one potion of mold is created, the
pattern is lifted up and moved to the next portion to make the next
segment of the mold.
 Big gears and wheels are produced with the help of segmented
pattern.
10. Follow Board Pattern
 Follow Board is not a pattern but is a device used for various
purposes.
 It is used for supporting a pattern which is very thin and fragile
which may break or collapse under pressure when the sand
above is rammed.
 With the Follow Board support under the weak pattern, the drag
is rammed and the follow board is withdrawn.
 Follow Board also forms the parting line of the mold or the
casting.
 Tools required for Pattern
Making

1. Measuring, marking and layout tools: Steel Rule,

Caliper, Marking Gauge, Trisquare, T-Level etc.
2. Tools for clamping purposes: Hand Vice, Pattern
Makers Vice, Bar Clamp, C-Clamp, Hand Screw
3. Sawing Tools: Coping Saw, Bow Saw, Back Saw.
4. Drilling and boring tools: Hand Drill, Counter Sink Bit,
Centre Bit
5. Wood Planning Tools: Jack Plane, Smooth Plane,
Block Plane, Circular Plane.
 In addition to the above tools, there is a
special tool used by the pattern maker
called as Contraction Rule which is a
measuring tool.
All castings contract in cooling from molten state and
pattern have to be correspondingly larger than the
required casting in order to compensate the loss in
size due to this contraction.

Different metals and alloys have different contraction.

A separate scale is available for each allowance and
it enables to get the pattern dimensions directly from
the scale.
 Pattern COLORS

 Patterns are given colours and shades in order to:

 Identify quickly the main parts of the pattern and
different parts of the pattern.
 Indicate the type of metal to be cast.
 Identify loose pieces, core prints etc.
 Identify the surfaces to be machined.
A common color scheme is given below:

 Cast surface to be left un-machined –

BLACK
 Cast surface to be machined – RED
 Loose Pieces – RED Stripes on YELLOW
base
 Stop-offs or supports - BLACK stripes on
YELLOW background
 Parting Surfaces – NO color
 Core prints – YELLOW Strips on BLACK
background
Steps (General Procedure)
Involved in Molding
Steps (General Procedure) Involved in Molding
1. Select a molding box which can accommodate mold
cavity, risers and gating system (Sprue, Runner, gates
etc.) Mold cavity should have sufficient wall thickness as
it will have to hold molten metal.
2. Place the drag box & pattern with parting surface
down on the bottom board.
3. Sprinkle the facing sand carefully all around the pattern
so that the pattern does not stick with molding sand.
4. Fill the drag box with loose molding sand.
5. Ram the sand uniformly in the molding box around the
pattern,
6. Strike-off the excess sand to bring it at the same level of
the flask height. This completes the drag box.
7. Sprinkle parting sand over the top of the drag and roll
over the drag.
8. Place the cope pattern on the drag pattern (and align
using dowel pins).
9. Place cope (flask) over the rammed drag.
10. Sprinkle parting sand all around the cope pattern.
11. Erect/fix sprue and riser pins to form suitable sized
cavities for pouring molten metal etc.
12. Fill the cope with sand and-ram.
13. Strike off the excess sand from the top of the cope.
14. Remove sprue and riser pins.
15. Vent the cope with a vent wire.
16. Sprinkle parting sand over the top of the cope surface.
17. Roll over the cope on the bottom board.
18. Rap and remove both the Cope and Drag patterns.
19. Repair the mold, if necessary.
20. Cut the gate connecting the sprue basin with the mold
cavity.
21. Apply mold coating with a swab.
22. Bake the mold in case of a dry sand mold.
23. Set the cores in the mold, if required.
24. Close the mold by inverting cope over drag.
25. Clamp cope with drag and the mold is ready for pouring.
 Molding Materials

1. A mold material is one, out of which mold is made.

2. A mold material should be such that mold cavity retains its
shape till the metal has solidified.
3. A suitable and workable material possessing high
refractoriness in nature can be used for mould making.
Thus, the mold making material can be metallic or non-
metallic.
4. For metallic category, the common materials are cast iron,
mild steel and alloy steels.
5. Permanent Molds are used for casting low melting point materials
and smaller casting of better quality and dimensional accuracy and it
is costly.
 In non-metallic group (used for casting high melting
point materials and bigger objects) molding sands,
plaster of Paris, graphite, silicon carbide and
ceramics are included.
 But, out of all, the molding sand is the most
common utilized non-metallic molding material
because of its certain inherent properties namely
refractoriness, chemical and thermal stability at
higher temperature, high permeability and workability
along with good strength.
 Moreover, it is also very cheap and easily available.

Sources of Molding Sand:

1. River Beds
2. Sea
3. Lakes
4. Desert
Types of Sands:
 Molding sands may be of two types namely natural
or synthetic.
 Natural molding sands contain sufficient binder.
 Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared
artificially using basic sand molding constituents
(silica sand in 88-92%, binder 6-12%, water or
moisture content 3-6%) and other additives in proper
proportion by weight with perfect mixing and mulling
in suitable equipments.
Properties of natural Sand :
1. Contains 5-20% clay.
2. Needs only water 5-8% to mix before making the
mold.
3. Can maintain moisture content for a long time.
4. Less refractory as compared to synthetic sands.
5. They are inexpensive.
6. Can be easily repaired.
7. Used for casting cast iron and non-ferrous metals.
Properties of Synthetic Sand :
1. Natural Sand with or without clay
2. Binder (say Bentonite)
3. Moisture
4. Formulated sand
5. Have good permeability
6. Requires less proportion of binder
7. Greater refractoriness
8. More uniform grain size
9. Used for casting steel, cast iron and non-ferrous
metals
Ingredients of Molding Sand

1. Silica Sand
2. Clay
3. Binders
4. Water
5. Additives
 1. Silica Sand
 Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
 But, along with silica, small amounts of iron
oxide, alumina, lime stone, magnesium,
soda and potash are present as an
impurities.
 Good refractory properties - for high
temperatures cases.
 Small grain size for better surface finish on
part .
 Large grain size is more permeable,
allowing gases to escape during pouring.
 Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due
to interlocking, compared to round grains.
 Disadvantage: interlocking reduces
permeability
 2. Binder
 In general, the binders can be either inorganic or
organic substance.
 The inorganic group includes clay, sodium silicate and
port land cement etc.
 In foundry shop, the clay acts as binder which may be
Kaolonite, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller’s earth
and Bentonite.
 Binders included in the organic group are dextrin,
molasses, cereal binders, linseed oil and resins like
phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde etc.
 Organic binders are mostly used for core making.
 Among all the above binders, the bentonite variety of
clay is the most common.
 However, this clay alone cannot develop bonds among
sand grains without the presence of moisture in
molding sand and core sand.
 3. Water/Moisture
 The amount of moisture content in the molding
sand varies generally between 2 to 8 percent.
 This amount of water is added to the mixture of
clay and silica sand for developing bonds.
 This is the amount of water required to fill the
pores between the particles of clay without
separating them.
 This amount of water is held rigidly by the clay
and is responsible for developing the strength
in the sand.
 Increasing the water content will decrease the
permeability.
4. Additives
Materials other than basic ingredients are also added in
the molding mixture.
 Increases dry strength of the molds.
 Increase the collapsibility of the molding and core
sand.
 Increases the hot strength and finish on the surfaces of
the molds and cores.
 Reduces metal penetration in the walls of the molds
and cores.
 Obtain smoother and cleaner surfaces of castings and
help easy peeling of sand from the casting surface
during shake out Eg. Sea Coal, Pitch and Asphalt, coke,
silica flour, Graphite etc.
 Prevent thermal expansion of silica sand grains.
Eg. Wood flour, cereal hulls, Cellulose, perlite etc.
Types of Molding Sand based
on usage
 Types of Molding Sand
based on use in
molding operation

1. Green Sand : Mixture of silica sand with 18-30% clay

and water 5%. Preferred for producing simple, small
and medium size castings.
2. Dry Sand: Green Sand that has been dried or baked.
3. Loam Sand: Loam Sand has around 50% of clay.
4. Facing Sand: Forms the face of mold. It is used directly
next to the pattern and comes into contact with molten
metal when poured.
5. Backing Sand: Backing sand is used to back up
facing sand.
6. System Sand : Sand used in Mechanical Foundries.
7. Parting Sand: To allow the sand on the parting
surface of cope and drag to separate without
clinging.
8. Core Sand: Sand used for making Core.
1. Green sand
 Green sand is also known as tempered or
natural sand which is a just prepared mixture of
silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having
moisture content from 6 to 8%.
 The clay and water furnish the bond for green sand.
 It is fine, soft, light, and porous.
 Green sand is damp, when squeezed in the hand and it
retains the shape and the impression to give to it under
pressure.
 Molds prepared by this sand are not requiring backing and
hence are known as green sand molds.
 This sand is easily available and it possesses low cost. It is
commonly employed for production of ferrous and non-
ferrous castings.
2. Dry sand Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable
oven after the making mold and cores is called dry
sand.
 It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal
stability.
 It is mainly suitable for larger castings. Mold prepared in this
sand are known as dry sand molds.
3. Loam sand
 Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic
paste.
 Loam sand possesses high clay as much as 30-50% and 18%
water.
 Patterns are not used for loam molding and shape is given to
mold by sweeps.
 This is particularly employed for loam molding used for large
grey iron castings.
 4. Facing sand
 Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of
the mould.
 It is directly next to the surface of the pattern and it
comes into contact molten metal when the mould is
poured.
 This sand is subjected severest conditions and must possess,
therefore, high strength refractoriness.
 It is made of silica sand and clay, without the use of used sand.
 A facing sand mixture for green sand of cast iron may consist of
25% fresh and specially prepared and 5% sea coal.
 They are sometimes mixed with 6-15 times as much fine
molding sand to make facings.
 The layer of facing sand in a mold usually ranges from 22-28 mm.
 From 10 to 15% of the whole amount of molding sand is the facing
sand.
5. Backing sand
Backing sand or floor sand is used to back-up the
facing sand
Used molding sand is mainly employed for this
purpose.
 The backing sand is sometimes called black sand because that old,
repeatedly used molding sand is black in color due to addition of
coal dust and burning on coming in contact with the molten metal.
6. System sand
 In mechanized foundries where machine molding is employed.
So-called system sand is used to fill the whole molding flask.
 In mechanical sand preparation and handling units, no facing sand
is used.
 The used sand is cleaned and re-activated by the addition of water
and special additives. This is known as system sand.
 Since the whole mold is made of this system sand, the properties
such as strength, permeability and refractoriness of the molding
sand must be higher than those of backing sand.
7. Parting sand
 Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the
green sand not to stick to the pattern and also to allow the sand
on the parting surface the cope and drag to separate without
clinging.
 This is clean clay-free silica sand which serves the same
purpose as parting dust.
8. Core sand
 Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also
known as oil sand.
 This is highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as
core oil which composed of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil
and other bind materials.
 Pitch or flours and water may also be used in large cores for the
sake of economy.
Properties of Molding
Sands
Properties of Molding Sands :
1. Refractoriness: It is defined as the ability of molding sand to
withstand high temperatures without breaking down or fusing
thus facilitating to get sound casting.
 Refractoriness can only be increased to a limited
extent.
 Molding sand with poor refractoriness may burn on to the
casting surface and no smooth casting surface can be obtained.
 The degree of refractoriness depends on the SiO2 i.e. quartz
content, and the shape and grain size of the particle.
 The higher the SiO2 content and the rougher the grain
volumetric composition the higher is the refractoriness of the
molding sand and core sand.
 Refractoriness is measured by the sinter point of the sand
rather than its melting point.
2. Permeability
It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in
order to allow the escape of any air, gases or
moisture present or generated in the mould when
the molten metal is poured into it.
 All these gaseous generated during pouring and solidification
process must escape otherwise the casting becomes defective.
 Permeability is a function of grain size, grain shape, and
moisture and clay contents in the molding sand.
 The extent of ramming of the sand directly affects the
permeability of the mould.
 Permeability of mold can be further increased by venting
using vent rods.
 3. Cohesiveness
» It is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand
grain particles interact and attract each other within the
molding sand.
» Binding capability of the molding sand gets enhanced to
increase the green, dry and hot strength property of molding
and core sand.
4. Green strength
 The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have sufficient
strength and toughness to permit the making and handling of the mould.
 For this, the sand grains must be adhesive, i.e. they must be capable of
attaching themselves to another body and. therefore, and sand grains
having high adhesiveness will cling to the sides of the molding box.
 Also, the sand grains must have the property known as cohesiveness i.e.
ability of the sand grains to stick to one another.
 the pattern can be taken out from the mould without breaking the mould
and also the erosion of mould wall surfaces does not occur during the flow
of molten metal.
 The green strength also depends upon the grain shape and size, amount and
type of clay and the moisture content.
 5. Dry strength
» As soon as the molten metal is poured into the
mould, the moisture in the sand layer adjacent to
the hot metal gets evaporated and this dry sand
layer must have sufficient strength to its shape
in order to avoid erosion of mould wall during the
flow of molten metal.
 The dry strength also prevents the enlargement of mould cavity.
6. Flowability or plasticity
 It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a
fluid.
 It will flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and
distribute the ramming pressure evenly all around in all directions.
 Generally sand particles resist moving around corners or
projections.
 In general, flowability increases with decrease in green strength,
an, decrease in grain size. The flowability also varies with
moisture and clay content.
7. Adhesiveness
» It is property of molding sand to get stick or
adhere with foreign material sticking of molding
sand with inner wall of molding box.
8. Collapsibility
 After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified, the sand
mould must be collapsible, so that free contraction of the metal
occurs and this would naturally avoid the tearing or cracking of
the contracting metal. In absence of this property the
contraction of the metal is hindered by the mold and thus
results in tears and cracks in the casting. This property is
highly desired in cores.
9. Fineness: It is the ability of the sand to produce smooth
surfaced castings.
10. Coefficient of Expansion: Good molding sand should have
less coefficient of expansion.
11. Durability: It is the ability of the sand to be used again and again.
 Core
» Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part
inserted into mold cavity prior to pouring of
cast material.
 The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold
cavity and the core to form the casting's external and
internal surfaces
 It may require supports to hold it in position in the mold
cavity during pouring, called chaplets .
 Chaplets are made of a metal with a higher melting
temperature than the casting metal.
 For example, steel chaplets would be used for cast iron
castings. On pouring and solidification, the chaplets
become bonded into the casting.
 Core in Mold
» The core is anchored by core prints, which
are recesses added to the pattern to locate
and support the core and to provide vents for
the escape of gases
 (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets,
(b) possible chaplet design, (c) casting
Chaplet:
A small metal insert or spacer used in
molds to provide core support during
the casting process.
Charge:
A given weight of metal introduced
into the furnace.
Chill:
A metal insert in the sand mold used
to produce local chilling and equalize
rate of solidification throughout the
casting.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
MOLDING PROCESSES
 CLASSIFICATION OF MOLDING PROCESSES
 Molding processes can be classified in a number of ways.
 Broadly they are classified either on the basis of the method
used or on the basis of the mold material used.
(i) Classification based on the method used
(a) Bench molding
(b) Floor molding
(c) Pit molding
(d) Machine molding
(ii) Classification based on the mold material used:
(a) Sand molding:
1. Green sand mould
2. Dry sand mould
3. Skin dried mould
4. Core sand mould
5. Air Dried Molding
6. Loam molding
7. Shell molding
8. Cement bonded sand molding
(b) Metal Molds or Dies
(c) Investment Mold
(d) Ceramic molding
(e) Plaster molding
(f) Graphite molding
(g) Sodium Silicate-CO2 molding
Classification based on the method used
(a). Bench Molding
» This type of molding is preferred for small jobs.
» The whole molding operation is carried out on a
bench of convenient height.
» Both green and dry sand molds can be made by
bench molding.
 In this process, a minimum of two flasks, namely cope and drag
molding flasks are necessary.
 But in certain cases, the number of flasks may increase
depending upon the number of parting surfaces required.
(b) Floor Molding
 This type of molding is preferred for medium and large size
jobs.
 In this method, only cope portion of molding flask is used to
make the mold and the floor itself is utilized as drag
 It is usually performed with dry sand.
(c) Pit Molding
» Usually large castings are made in pits
instead of drag flasks because of their huge
size.
» In pit molding, the sand under the pattern is
rammed by bedding-in process.
 The walls and the bottom of the pit are usually reinforced with
concrete and a layer of coke is laid on the bottom of the pit to
enable easy escape of gas.
 The coke bed is connected to atmosphere through vent pipes
which provide an outlet to the gases.
 One box is generally required to complete the mold, runner,
sprue, pouring basin and gates are cut in it.
(d) Machine Molding
 For mass production of the casting, the general hand
molding technique proves un economical and in efficient.
 » The main advantage of machine molding,
besides the saving of labor and working time, is
the accuracy and uniformity of the castings
which can otherwise be only obtained with
much time and labor.
 Or even the cost of machining on the casting can be reduced
drastically because it is possible to maintain the tolerances
within narrow limits on casting using machine molding
method.
 Molding machines thus prepare the moulds at a faster rate
and also eliminate the need of employing skilled molders.
 The main operations performed by molding machines are
ramming of the molding sand, roll over the mold, form gate,
rapping the pattern and its withdrawal.
 Most of the mold making operations are performed using
molding machines
Classification based on the mold material used:
(a) Sand molding:
Green Sand Molding
 It is the most widely used molding process. Green sand is sand
which contains water.
 In a Green Sand Mold the molten metal is poured when is in the
green state i.e. in the un dried state.
 Low strength and low permeability
 Intricate shapes can be produced in Green Sand Mold.
 Green Sand Molds are suitable for producing small and medium
sized castings.
 Green sand molding is specially employed for producing non-ferrous
castings.
 Advantages :
(1) No mold baking or drying is required.
(2) There is less mold distortion than in dry sand molding.
(3) Time and cost associated with mold baking or drying is eliminated.
(4) Green sand molds having smaller depths permit the escape
of mold gases without any difficulty.
(5) Green sand molding provides good dimensional accuracy.
Disadvantages :
(1) Green sand molds possess lower strengths.
(2) They are less permeable.
(2) There are more chances of defects (like blow holes etc.)
occurring in castings made by green sand molding.
(3) Green sand molding does not impart good surface finish on
castings.
Dry sand molding
 Dry molding sand differs from the green molding sand in the
sense that it contains binders (like clay, bentonite, molasses
etc.) which harden when the mold is heated or dried.
 Dry sand molds are actually made with molding sand in green
condition and then the entire mold is dried in ovens.
Advantages
 Dry sand molds possess high strength.
 They are more permeable as compared to green sand molds.
 Castings produced from dry sand molds possess clean and
smooth surfaces.
 As compared to green sand molding, dry sand molding turns out
castings with less defects.
 Dry sand molding imparts better overall dimensional accuracy to
the molds and castings as compared to green sand molding.
 They are preferred for large sized castings.
Disadvantages
 Dry sand molding involves more labour and consumes more time in
completing the mold. Mold baking is an extra work as compared to
that required in green sand molding.
 Dry sand molding is more expensive as compared to green sand
molding.
Skin dried molding
 The mold is made with the molding sand in green
condition and then the skin of the mold cavity is dried up
with help of gas torches or radiant heating lamps.
 Skin Dried mold is dried up to a depth varying from
6mm to 25 mm.
 A Skin Dried mold possess strength and other
characteristics in between green and dried sand molds.
Air Dried Molding
 The mold is made with the molding sand in green
condition and then it is kept open to the atmospheric air
for a certain period of time.
 During that period some of the moisture from the mold
surface gets evaporated and consequently the mold
skin dries thereby increasing the strength and hardness
of the mold surface.
 Core-sand molding
» The main constituents of the core sand are pure silica
sand and a binder like Cereal binder, Sulphite binder,
Molasses, Core oil etc.
» Silica sand is preferred because of its high
refractoriness. For higher values of permeability sands
with coarse grain size distribution are used.
 The main purpose of the core binder is to hold the grains together,
impart strength and sufficient degree collapsibility.
 Beside these properties needed in the core sand, the binder should
be such that it produces minimum amount of gases when the molten
metal is poured in the mould.
 Although, in general the binder are inorganic as well as organic ones,
but for core making, organic binders are generally preferred because
they are combustible and can be destroyed by heat at higher
temperatures thereby giving sufficient collapsibility to the core sand.
 A Core Sand mold is made by assembling a number of cores made
individually in separate core boxes and baked.
 Loam molding
» Loam molding uses loam sand to prepare a
loam mold.
» It is such a molding process in which use of
pattern is avoided and hence it differs from the
other molding processes.
 Initially the loam sand is prepared with the mixture of
molding sand and clay (50%) made in form of a paste by
suitable addition of clay water.
 Firstly a rough structure of cast article is made by hand using
bricks and loam sand and it is then given a desired shape by
means of strickles and sweep patterns.
 Mould is thus prepared. It is then baked to give strength to
resist the flow of molten metal.
 The cope and drag part of mould are constructed separately
on two different iron boxes using different sizes of strickles
and sweeps etc. and are assembled together after baking.
 Advantages
 method of molding is used where large
castings are required in numbers.
 Thus it enables the reduction in time, labor
and material which would have been spent
in making a pattern.
 It is important to note that loam moulds are
dried slowly and completely and used for
large regular shaped castings like chemical
pans, drums etc.
 Disadvantages
 But this system is not popular for the reason
that it takes lots of time in preparing mould
and requires special skill.
 Molding Machines
 Molding process may be classified as hand
molding or machine molding according to
whether the mold is prepared by hand tools
or with the aid of molding machines.
 Hand molding is found to be economical
only when few casting are produced.
 Hand molding is slow and requires
considerable skill to produce good castings.
 Molding machines are used for producing
castings on a large scale.
 Machine Molding is fast.
 Does not require much skill compared to
Hand Molding.
Molding Machines
 Classification of Molding Machines
according to the method of compacting the
sand :

1. Squeezer Machine
Working of Top Squeezer Machine :
 Pattern (2) is placed on a
molding board which is clamped
on the Table (1).
 Molding Flask (3) is then placed
on the molding board.
 Sand Frame (4) is placed on
the flask.
 Molding Flask and frame are
filled with molding sand and
leveled off.
 Table is raised by a table lift
mechanism against the Presser
Board (5) on the Stationary
Squeezer Head (6).
 After the squeeze, the table
returns to its initial position.
Limitation:
 Sand is packed more densely on the top of the mold from
which pressure is applied. Around the pattern, the density is
found to be lowest. This variation in density affects the
hardness of mold.
Working of Bottom Squeezer Machine:
 Pattern (2) is placed on a molding board which is clamped on
the table (1).
 Molding Flask (3) is then placed on the molding board.
 Flask (3) is placed on the Sand Frame (7).
 Molding Flask and frame are filled with molding sand.
 Squeeze Head is brought near the top of the flask.
 Table is raised.
 After the squeeze, the table returns to its initial position.
 2. Jolt Machine

In Jolting Process
molding sand is compacted around the pattern
by lifting the flask containing the pattern to a
considerable height and dropping it suddenly
and repeatedly.
 Pattern and Flask (3) are placed on the Table
(1).
 Flask is filled with molding sand.
 Compressed air is passed through the Hose
(9) and Channel (10). This lifts the table along
with pattern and flask to a height of 30 to 80
mm.
 The air is then released through the Opening
(11).
 Table drops down suddenly and strikes the
Guiding Cylinder (12) at the bottom.
 Springs (13) are used to cushion the table
and to reduce noise.
 This process is repeated.
 Due to this action sand get packed and
rammed around the pattern.
 3. Jolt-Squeeze Machine

 Combination of Jolting
action and Squeezing action is used to
produce the desired mold cavity.
 A Match Plate is used making the mold.
 Match plate has gating system mounted on
it on both the sides.
 One side of match plate has cope
impression and other side has drag
impression.
 Flask containing Match plate is placed on
the Table with Drag side up.
 Sand is filled in the drag and jolted
repeatedly for a number of predetermined
times.
 After jolting, the complete flask is rolled
over by hand.
 Cope flask is filled with sand.
 Squeeze board is pressed against the
sand in the cope.
 Match plate is removed.
 4. Sand Slinger

 The overhead impeller consists of

the Housing (1) in which, the Blade
(2) rotates at a very high speed.
 The sand is delivered to the
Impeller through the opening by
means of conveyer belts.
 Sand is thrown through the outlet
(4) into the flask at a rate ranging
from 500 to 2000 kg/min.
 The density of the sand can be
controlled by the speed of the
blade.
Other Expendable Mold
Processes
 Other Expendable Mold
Processes
1. Shell Molding
2. Vacuum Molding
3. Expanded Polystyrene Process
4. Investment Casting
5. Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold
Casting
 1. Shell Molding
 Shell molding has grown significantly because it
can produce many types of castings with closer
dimensional tolerances and a good surface finish at low cost.
 Shell-molding applications include small mechanical parts
requiring high precision, such as gear housings, cylinder
heads, and connecting rods.
 The process also is used widely in producing high-precision
molding cores.
 In this process, a mounted pattern made of a ferrous metal
or aluminum is (a) heated to a range of 175° to 370°C, (b)
coated with a parting agent (such as silicone), and (c)
clamped to a box or chamber.
 The box contains fine sand, mixed with 2.5 to 4%
of a thermosetting resin binder (such as phenol-
formaldehyde) that coats the sand particles.
 Either the box is rotated upside down , or the sand mixture
is blown over the pattern, allowing it to form a coating.
 The assembly is then placed in an oven for a short period of
time to complete the curing of the resin.
 In most shell-molding machines, the oven consists of a metal
box with gas-fired burners that swing over the shell mold to
cure it.
 The shell hardens around the pattern and is removed from
the pattern using built-in ejector pins.
 Two half-shells are made in this manner and are
bonded or clamped together to form a mold.
 The thickness of the shell can be determined accurately by
controlling the time that the pattern is in contact with the
mold.
 In this way, the shell can be formed with the required
strength and rigidity to hold the weight of the molten liquid.
 The shells are light and thin-usually 5 to 10 mm-and
consequently, their thermal characteristics are different from
those for thicker molds.
 Shell sand has a much lower permeability than the sand
used for green-sand molding, because a sand of much
smaller grain size is used for shell molding.
 The decomposition of the shell-sand binder also
produces a high volume of gas.
 Consequently, unless the molds are vented properly,
trapped air and gas can cause serious problems in the shell
molding of ferrous castings.
 The high quality of the finished casting can reduce cleaning,
machining, and other finishing costs significantly.
 Complex shapes can be produced with less labor, and the
process can be automated fairly easily.
 There are many advantages to the shell-molding
process. The surface of the shell mold cavity is smoother than a
conventional green-sand mold, and this smoothness permits easier
flow of molten metal during pouring and better surface finish on the
final casting.
 The good finish and accuracy often precludes the need for further
machining.
 Collapsibility of the mold is generally sufficient to avoid tearing
and cracking of the casting.
Disadvantages of shell molding include a more expensive metal
pattern than the corresponding pattern for green-sand molding.
 This makes shell molding difficult to justify for small quantities of
parts.
 Shell molding can be mechanized for mass production and is very
economical for large quantities. It seems particularly suited to steel
castings of less than 20 lb (9 kg).
 Casting process in
which the mold is a
thin shell of sand held
together by
thermosetting resin
 Steps: (1) A metal
pattern is heated and
placed over a box
containing sand mixed
with TS resin
 Steps in Shell Molding

 (2) Box is inverted so

that sand and resin
fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a
layer of the mixture
to partially cure on
the surface to form a
hard shell
 Steps in Shell Molding

 (3) Box is
repositioned so
loose uncured
particles drop
away
 Steps in Shell Molding

 (4) Sand shell is

heated in oven for
several minutes to
complete curing
 Steps in Shell Molding

 (5) shell mold

is stripped
from pattern
 Steps in Shell Molding

 (6) Two halves of the shell

mold are assembled,
supported by sand or
metal shot in a box, and
pouring is accomplished
 Steps in Shell Molding

 (7) Finished casting

with sprue
removed
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages:
» Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten
metal and better surface finish
 Finishes of 2.5 µm can be obtained.
 Good dimensional accuracy is also achieved, with tolerances of
+/- 0.25 mm possible on small-to-medium-sized parts.
 Mold collapsibility minimizes tearing and cracks in casting
 Can be mechanized for mass production
 Disadvantages:
 More expensive metal pattern
 Difficult to justify for small quantities.
 Examples of parts made using shell molding include gears, valve bodies,
bushings, and camshafts, gear housings, cylinder heads, and connecting
rods.
 2. Investment Casting
(Lost Wax Process)

 A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to

make the mold, after which wax is melted away prior to
pouring molten metal
 "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of
"invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to coating of
refractory material around wax pattern
 It is a precision casting process
 Capable of producing castings of high accuracy and
intricate detail.
 also known as the lost-wax process, because the wax
pattern is lost from the mold prior to casting.
 Products such as rocket components and jet
 engine turbine blades required the fabrication of
 high-precision complex shapes from high-melting-
point metals that are not easily machined.
It involves the following sequential steps:
1. Produce a master pattern—a modified replica of the desired
product made from metal, wood, plastic, or some other easily
worked material.
2. From the master pattern, produce a master die. This can be
made from low-melting point metal, steel, or possibly even
wood. If a low-melting-point metal is used, the die may be cast
directly from the master pattern. Rubber molds can also be
made directly from the master pattern. Steel dies are often
machined directly, eliminating the need for step 1.
 3. Produce wax patterns. Patterns are made by
pouring molten wax into the master die, or
injecting it under pressure (injection molding), and
allowing it to harden.
 4. Assemble the wax patterns onto a common wax sprue. Using
heated tools and melted wax, a number of wax patterns can
be attached to a central sprue and runner system to create a
pattern cluster, or a tree.
 5. Coat the cluster or tree with a thin layer of investment material.
This step is usually accomplished by dipping into a watery
slurry of finely ground refractory material (very fine silica
and binders, including water, ethyl silicate, and acids). A
thin but very smooth layer of investment material is
deposited onto the wax pattern, ensuring a smooth surface
and good detail in the final product.
 6. Form additional investment around the coated
cluster. After the initial layer has dried, the cluster
can be re dipped, but this time the wet ceramic is coated with a
layer of sand or coarse refractory, a process called stuccoing.
After drying, the process is repeated until the investment
coating has the desired thickness (typically 5 to 15 mm or to
inch with up to eight layers).
 As an alternative, the single-dipped cluster can be placed
upside down in a flask and liquid investment material
poured around it.
 The flask is then vibrated to remove entrapped air and
ensure that the investment material now surrounds all
surfaces of the cluster.
 7. Allow the investment to fully harden.
8. Remove the wax pattern from the mold by melting (90°
to 175 °C). or dissolving. Molds or trees are generally placed
upside down in an oven where the wax can melt and run out,
and any residue subsequently vaporizes.
9. Heat the mold in preparation for pouring. Heating to 550° to
1100°C (1000° to 2000°F) ensures complete removal of the mold
wax, cures the mold to give added strength, and allows the
molten metal to retain its heat and flow more readily into all of
the thin sections and details. Mold heating also gives better
dimensional control because the mold and the metal can shrink
together during cooling.
10. Pour the molten metal. While gravity pouring is the simplest,
other methods may be used to ensure complete filling of the
mold.
When complex, thin sections are involved, mold filling may be
assisted by positive air pressure, evacuation of the air from the
mold, or some form of centrifugal process.
11. Remove the solidified casting from the mold. After solidification,
techniques such as mechanical chipping or vibration, high-
pressure water jet, or sand blasting are used to break the mold
and remove the mold material from the metal casting.
 Steps in Investment Casting

 (1) Wax patterns are

produced
 (2) Several patterns
are attached to a sprue
to form a pattern tree
 (3) Pattern tree is coated
with a thin layer of Steps in
refractory material a Investment Casting
slurry of very fine
grained silica or other
refractory (almost in
powder form)
 mixed with plaster to
bond the mold into
shape. captures the
intricate details of the
wax pattern.
 (4) Full mold is formed
by covering the coated
tree with sufficient
refractory material to
make it rigid
 Steps in Investment Casting

 (5) Mold is held in an

inverted position and
heated to melt the
wax and permit it to
drip out of the cavity
 (6) Mold is preheated
to a high temperature,
the molten metal is
poured, and it
solidifies
 Steps in Investment Casting

 (7) Mold is broken

away from the
finished casting and
the parts are
separated from the
sprue
One-piece compressor stator with 108
separate airfoils made by investment
casting (courtesy of Alcoa Howmet)
 Investment Casting:
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages:
 Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be
cast
 Close dimensional control—tolerances of +/- 0.075
mm and good surface finish
 Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
 This is a net shape process - additional machining
is not normally required
 Disadvantages:
 Many processing steps are required
 Relatively expensive process
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 3. Plaster Mold Casting
» Similar to sand casting except mold is made of
plaster of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
 In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured over
plastic (thermosetting plastics) or metal pattern (aluminum
alloys, brass, or zinc alloys )and allowed to set
 Wood patterns not generally used due to extended
contact with water
 Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern, capturing
its fine details and good surface finish.
 Additives such as talc and silica flour are mixed with the
plaster to control contraction and setting time, reduce
cracking, and increase strength.
 Curing of the plaster mold is one of the disadvantages of
this process, at least in high production.
 The mold must set for about 20 minutes before the pattern
is stripped.
 The mold is then baked for several hours to remove
moisture (Usually120° to 260°C).
 Even with the baking, not all of the moisture content is
removed from the plaster. The dilemma faced by foundry
men is that mold strength is lost when the plaster becomes
too dehydrated, and yet moisture content can cause casting
defects in the product.
 A balance must be achieved between these
undesirable alternatives.
 Another disadvantage with the plaster mold is that it is not
permeable, thus limiting escape of gases from the
mold cavity.
 (1) evacuating air from the mold cavity before pouring;
 (2) aerating the plaster slurry prior to mold making so that the
resulting hard plaster contains finely dispersed voids; and
 (3) using a special mold composition and treatment known as
the Antioch process. This process involves using about 50%
sand mixed with the plaster, heating the mold (6 to 12 hours)
in an autoclave (an oven that uses superheated steam under
pressure),and then drying (rehydrated in air for 14 hours) .
 The resulting mold has considerably greater permeability than
a conventional plaster mold.
 Plaster molds cannot withstand the same
high temperatures (generally about 1200°C)
as sand molds.
» They are therefore limited to the casting of
lower-melting-point alloys, such as
aluminum, magnesium, and some copper-
base alloys.
 Applications include metal molds for plastic and rubber
molding, pump and turbine impellers, and other parts
of relatively intricate geometry.
 Casting sizes range from about 20 g to more than 100 kg
. Parts weighing less than about 10 kg (22 lb) are most
common.
 Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages:
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Capability to make thin cross sections
 Disadvantages:
 Mold must be baked to remove moisture
 Moisture can cause problems in casting
 Mold strength is lost if over-baked
 Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures
 Limited to lower melting point alloys
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 4. Ceramic Mold Casting

 The ceramic-mold casting process is also called cope-and-

drag investment casting suitable for high-temperature
applications.
 Typical parts made are impellers, cutters for machining
operations, dies for metalworking, and molds for making
plastic and rubber components.
 Parts weighing as much as 700 kg have been cast by this
process.
 Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is made of
refractory ceramic material that can withstand higher
temperatures than plaster
 The slurry is a mixture of fine-grained zircon (ZrSiO4),
aluminum oxide, and fused silica, which are mixed with
bonding agents and poured over the pattern, which has been
placed in a flask.
 The pattern may be made of wood or metal. After setting, the
molds (ceramic facings) are removed, dried, ignited to burn
off volatile matter, and baked.
 The molds are clamped firmly and used as all-ceramic molds.
 In case of Noel Shaw process, the ceramic facings are backed
by fireclay (which resists high temperatures) to give strength
to the mold.
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 The facings then are assembled into a complete mold,
ready to be poured.
 The high-temperature resistance of the refractory
molding materials allows these molds to be used for
casting ferrous (cast steels, cast irons) and other
high-temperature alloys, stainless steels, and tool
steels.
 Although the process is somewhat expensive, the
castings have good dimensional accuracy and
surface finish over a wide range of sizes and
intricate shapes.
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Permanent Mould Casting
Processes
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes

 Disadvantage of expendable mold casting is a new

mold is required for every casting.
 In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused
many times.
 Processes includes:
1. Basic permanent mold casting
2. Die casting
3. Centrifugal casting
 Permanent-mold casting-General
Procedure
 In the permanent-mold casting process, also called
gravity die casting.
 Reusable mould is machined from grey cast iron,
alloy cast iron, steel, bronze, graphite, or other material.
 The molds are usually made in segments, which are often
hinged to permit rapid and accurate opening and closing.
 After preheating, a refractory or mold coating is applied to
the preheated mold, and the mold is clamped shut.
 Molten metal is then poured into the pouring basin, and it
flows through the feeding system into the mold cavity by
simple gravity flow.
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes

 Metals commonly cast in permanent molds include

aluminium, magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast
iron.
 However, cast iron requires a high pouring
temperature, 1250°C to 1500 ° C (2282F–2732F),
which takes a heavy toll on mold life.
 The very high pouring temperatures of steel make
permanent molds unsuitable for this metal, unless the
mold is made of refractory material.
 Basic Permanent Mold Process

 Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections

designed for easy, precise opening and closing.
 Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys
are commonly made of steel or cast iron
 Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes

 Cores can be used in permanent molds to form interior

surfaces in the cast product.
 The cores can be made of metal, but either their shape must
allow for removal from the casting or they must be
mechanically collapsible to permit removal.
 If withdrawal of a metal core would be difficult or impossible,
sand cores can be used, in which case the casting process
is often referred to as semi permanent-mold casting.
 Steps in Permanent Mold Casting
 (1) In preparation for casting, the mold is first
preheated and one or more coatings are sprayed
on the cavity
 Preheating facilitates metal flow through the gating system
and into the cavity. Mold is preheated and coated for
lubrication and heat dissipation
 Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting

 (2) Cores (if any

are used) are
inserted and
mold is closed
 Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting

 (3) Molten metal is

poured into the mold,
where it solidifies
 Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting
 (4) Mold is opened
 Advantages and Limitations

 Advantages of permanent mold casting:

 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 Rapid solidification caused by metal mold results in a
finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
 Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold
 Applications

 Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to

high volume production and can be automated
accordingly
 Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and
certain castings for aircraft and missiles
 Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper-base alloys, and cast iron
 Unsuited to steels because of very high pouring
temperatures
 Slush Casting
 Hollow castings can be produced by a variant
of permanent-mold casting known as slush
casting.

 Hot metal is poured into the metal mold and is allowed

to cool until a shell of desired thickness has formed.
 The mold is then inverted and the remaining liquid is
poured out.
The resulting casting is a hollow shape with good surface detail
but variable wall thickness.
Common applications include the casting of ornamental
objects such as candlesticks, lamp bases, and statues from
the low-melting-temperature metals.
 solidified skin develops in a casting and becomes
 thicker with time.

Solidified skin develops in a casting and becomes

thicker with time.
 Slush Casting

 The thickness of the shell is controlled by the length

of time allowed before draining.
 Slush casting is used to make statues, lamp
pedestals, and toys out of low-melting-point metals
such as zinc, lead alloys and tin.
 In these items, the exterior appearance is important,
but the strength and interior geometry of the casting
are minor considerations.
 Die Casting

 Die casting is a permanent-mold casting process in which the

molten metal is injected into the mold cavity under high
pressure.
 Typical pressures are 7 to 350 MPa.
 The pressure is maintained during solidification, after which
the mold is opened and the part is removed.
 Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the
name die casting.
 The use of high pressure to force the metal into the die cavity
is the most notable feature that distinguishes this process
from others in the permanent-mold category.
 Die Casting

 Die casting operations are carried out in special die

casting machines , which are designed to hold and
accurately close the two halves of the mold, and keep
them closed while the liquid metal is forced into the
cavity.
There are two main types of die casting machines:
(1) hot-chamber
(2) cold-chamber,
 Differentiated by how the molten metal is injected into
the cavity.
 Hot chamber Die Casting
 In hot-chamber machines, the metal is melted in a
container attached to the machine, and a piston is
used to inject the liquid metal under high pressure
into the die.
 Typical injection pressures are 7 to 35 MPa .
 The Production rates up to 500 parts per hour are not
uncommon.
 Hot-chamber die casting imposes a special hardship on the
injection system because much of it is submerged in the
molten metal.
 The process is therefore limited in its applications to low
melting-point metals that do not chemically attack the
plunger and other mechanical components.
 The metals include zinc, tin, lead, and sometimes
magnesium.
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

 Hot-chamber die
casting cycle: (1)
with die closed
and plunger
withdrawn,
molten metal
flows into the
chamber
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

 (2) plunger forces

metal in chamber to
flow into die,
maintaining pressure
during cooling and
solidification.
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

 (3) Plunger is
withdrawn, die is
opened, and
casting is ejected
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting
Machine
 In cold-chamber die casting machines, molten metal is
poured into an unheated chamber from an external melting
container, and a piston is used to inject the metal under
high pressure into the die cavity.
 Injection pressures used in these machines are typically 14
to 140 MPa .
 Compared to hot-chamber machines, cycle rates are not
usually as fast because of the need to ladle the liquid metal
into the chamber from an external source.
 Nevertheless, this casting process is a high production
operation.
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine
 Cold-chamber machines are typically used for
casting aluminum, brass, and magnesium
alloys.
 Low-melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead) can also be cast on
cold-chamber machines, but the advantages of the hot-
chamber process usually favor its use on these metals.
 Molds used in die casting operations are usually made of
tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel.
 Tungsten and molybdenum with good refractory qualities are
also being used, especially in attempts to die cast steel and
cast iron.
 Ejector pins are required to remove the part from the die
when it opens. These pins push the part away from the mold
surface so that it can be removed.
 Lubricants must also be sprayed into the cavities to prevent sticking.
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting
Machine
 Because the die materials have no natural porosity
and the molten metal rapidly flows into the die
during injection, venting holes and passageways must be built
into the dies at the parting line to evacuate the air and gases in
the cavity.
The vents are quite small; yet they fill with metal during
injection.
This metal must later be trimmed from the part. Also, formation
of flash is common in die casting, in which the liquid metal
under high pressure squeezes into the small space between
the die halves at the parting line or into the clearances around
the cores and ejector pins.
This flash must be trimmed from the casting, along with the
sprue and gating system.
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Cycle

 (1) With die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is

poured into the chamber
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Cycle

 (2) Ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining

pressure during cooling and solidification
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Cycle

 (3) Ram is withdrawn, die is opened, and part is

ejected
 Molds for Die Casting

 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging

steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities)
used to die cast steel and cast iron
 Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed onto cavity surfaces to
prevent sticking
A die casting that
measures about 400
mm diagonally for a
truck cab floor
(courtesy of
George E. Kane
Manufacturing
Technology
Laboratory)
 Die Casting:
Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of die casting include (1) high production rates

possible; (2) economical for large production quantities; (3)
close tolerances possible, on the order of +/- 0.076mm (0.003
in) for small parts; (4) good surface finish; (5) thin sections are
possible, down to about 0.5mm (0.020 in); and (6) rapid
cooling provides small grain size and good strength to the
casting.
The limitation of this process, in addition to the metals cast, is
the shape restriction.
The part geometry must allow for removal from the die cavity.
 Centrifugal Casting

 The inertial forces of rotation or spinning are

used to distribute the molten metal into the mold cavity
or cavities in the centrifugal casting processes.
 It includes true centrifugal casting, semi centrifugal casting,
and centrifuging.
 In true centrifugal casting, a dry-sand, graphite, or metal mold
is rotated about either a horizontal or vertical axis at speeds
of 300 to 3000 rpm.
 As the molten metal is introduced, it is flung to the surface of
the mold, where it solidifies into some form of hollow product.
 The exterior profile is usually round (as with gun barrels,
pipes, and tubes), but hexagons and other symmetrical
shapes are also possible.
 Centrifugal Casting

 No core or mold surface is needed to shape the interior,

which will always have a round profile because the molten
metal is uniformly distributed by the centrifugal forces.
 When rotation is about the horizontal axis, the inner
surface is always cylindrical.
 If the mold is oriented vertically, gravitational forces cause
the inner surface to become parabolic, with the exact
shape being a function of the speed of rotation.
 Wall thickness can be controlled by varying the amount of
metal that is introduced into the mold.
 Centrifugal Casting

 During the rotation, the metal is forced against the outer walls
of the mold with considerable force, and solidification
begins at the outer surface.
 Centrifugal force continues to feed molten metal as
solidification progresses inward.
 Since the process compensates for shrinkage, no risers
are required.
 Products can have outside diameters ranging from 7.5 cm to
1.4 m (3 to 55 in.) and wall thickness up to 25 cm (10 in.).
 Pipe (up to 12 m, or 40 ft, in length), pressure vessels,
cylinder liners, brake drums, the starting material for bearing
rings can be manufactured by centrifugal casting.
 Centrifugal Casting

 The equipment is rather specialized and can be quite

expensive for large castings.
 The permanent molds can also be expensive, but they offer a
long service life, especially when coated with some form of
refractory dust or wash.
 Since no sprues, gates, or risers are required, yields can
be greater than 90%.
 Composite products can also be made by centrifugal
casting of a second material on the inside surface of an
already-cast product.
 True Centrifugal Casting

 Setup for true centrifugal casting

 Semicentrifugal Casting
 Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings
rather than tubular parts
» In semicentrifugal casting the centrifugal force
assists the flow of metal from a central reservoir
to the extremities of a rotating symmetrical mold.
 The rotational speeds are usually lower than for true
centrifugal casting, and the molds may be either expendable
or multiple-use.
 Several molds may also be stacked on top of one another,so
they can be fed by a common pouring basin and sprue.
 In general, the mold shape is more complex than for true
centrifugal casting, and cores can be placed in the mold to
further increase the complexity of the product.
 Semicentrifugal Casting
 Molds use risers at center to supply feed
metal
» Density of metal in final casting is greater in
outer sections than at center of rotation.
 The central reservoir acts as a riser and must be large
enough to ensure that it will be the last material to freeze.
 Since the lighter impurities concentrate in the center, however,
the process is best used for castings where the central region
will ultimately be hollow.
 Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined
away, thus eliminating the portion where quality is low.
 Common products include gear blanks, pulley sheaves,
wheels, impellers, and electric motor rotors.
Semicentrifugal Casting
 Centrifuge Casting

 It uses centrifugal action to force metal from a central

pouring reservoir or sprue, through spoke-type runners,
into separate mold cavities that are offset from the axis of
rotation.
 Relatively low rotational speeds are required to produce
sound castings with thin walls and intricate shapes.
 Centrifuging is often used to assist in the pouring of multiple-
product investment casting trees.
 Mold is designed with part cavities located away from axis of
rotation, so molten metal poured into mold is distributed to
these cavities by centrifugal force.
 Centrifuge Casting

 Centrifuging can also be used to drive pewter [Malleable

metal alloy] (Grey Alloy of tin with copper and antimony), zinc,
or wax into spinning rubber molds to produce products with
close tolerances, smooth surfaces, and excellent detail.
 These can be finished products or the low-melting-point
patterns that are subsequently assembled to form the “trees”
for investment casting.
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods
 Centrifuge Casting

 (a) The process and (b) one of the parts cast

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Surface Cleaning and Inspection

 Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise

enhancing appearance of surface.
 Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with
coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing,
buffing, and chemical pickling
 Surface cleaning is most important for sand
casting
 Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is
needed to detect their presence.
Tumbling Process
 Heat Treatment

 Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties.

 Reasons for heat treating a casting:
 For subsequent processing operations such as
machining
 To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service
Casting Quality
 Casting Quality

 There are numerous opportunities for things to go

wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality defects
in the product.
 The defects can be classified as follows:
1. General defects common to all casting processes
2. Defects related to sand casting process
 General Defects:
1. Misrun

 A casting that has

solidified before
completely filling
mold cavity
 General Defects:
2. Cold Shut

 Two portions of metal

flow together but there
is a lack of fusion due
to premature freezing
 General Defects:
3. Cold Shot

 Metal splatters
during pouring and
solid bubbles form
and become
entrapped in casting
 General Defects:
4. Shrinkage Cavity

 Depression in surface
or internal void caused
by solidification
shrinkage that restricts
amount of molten
metal available in last
region to freeze
 Sand Casting Defects:
5. Sand Blow

 Balloon-shaped gas
cavity caused by
release of mold
gases during pouring
 Sand Casting Defects:
6. Pin Holes

 Formation of many small

gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting
 Sand Casting Defects:
7. Penetration

 When fluidity of liquid

metal is high, it may
penetrate into sand mold
or core, causing casting
surface to consist of a
mixture of sand grains
and metal
 Sand Casting Defects:
8. Mold Shift

 A step in the cast

product at parting
line caused by
sidewise relative
displacement of
cope and drag
 Foundry Inspection Methods

 Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as

misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws.
 Dimensional measurements to insure that
tolerances have been met or not.
 Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests
concerned with quality of cast metal.
 Inspection and Testing Methods

1. Visual inspection
2. Non-destructive evaluation
3. Destructive testing
 Destructive Testing

Advantages
 1. Provides a direct and reliable measurement of how a
material or component will respond to service Test
conditions.
 2. Provides quantitative results, will be useful for design.
 3.Does not require interpretation of results by skilled
operators.
 4. Usually finds agreement between its meaning and
significance of test results.
 Destructive Testing
Disadvantages
1. Applied only to a sample; must show that the sample is
representative of the group.
2. Tested parts are destroyed during testing.
3. Usually cannot repeat a test on the same item or use the
same specimen for multiple tests.
4. May be restricted for costly or few-in-number parts.
5. Hard to predict cumulative effect of service usage.
6. Difficult to apply to parts in use; if done, testing terminates
their useful life.
7. Extensive machining or preparation of test specimens is
often required.
8. Capital equipment and labor costs are often high.
 Non-destructive Testing
Advantages
1. Can be performed directly on production items
without regard to cost or quantity available.
2. Can be performed on 100% of production lot (when high
variability is observed) or a representative sample.
3. Different tests can be applied to the same item, and a test
can be repeated on the same specimen.
4. Can be performed on parts that are in service; the
cumulative effects of service life can be monitored on a single
part.
5. Little or no specimen preparation is required.
6. The test equipment is often portable.
7. Labor costs are usually low.
 Non-destructive Testing
Disadvantages

1. Results often require interpretation by skilled operators.

2. Different observers may interpret the test results differently.
3. Properties are measured indirectly, and results are often
qualitative or comparative.
4. Some test equipment requires a large capital investment.
 1. VISUAL INSPECTION
 Probably the simplest and most widely used
nondestructive testing method is visual inspection,
 The human eye is a very discerning instrument
and, with training, the brain can readily interpret the signals.
 Optical aids such as mirrors, magnifying glasses, and
microscopes can expand the capabilities of this system.
 Video cameras and computer systems, such as digital
image analyzers, can be used to automate the inspection
and perform quantitative geometrical evaluations.
 Bore scopes and similar tools can provide accessibility to
otherwise inaccessible locations.
 Only the surfaces of a product can be examined, but that is
often sufficient to reveal corrosion, contamination, surface-
finish flaws, and a wide variety of surface discontinuities.
 2. LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

 Liquid penetrant testing, also called dye penetrant

inspection, is an effective method of detecting surface
defects in metals and other nonporous materials;
 The piece to be tested is first subjected to a thorough
cleaning and is dried prior to the test.
 Then a penetrant, a liquid material capable of wetting the
entire surface and being drawn into fine openings, is applied
to the surface of the workpiece by dipping, spraying, or
brushing.
 Sufficient time is given for capillary action to draw the
penetrant into any surface discontinuities, and the excess
penetrant liquid is then removed by wiping, water wash, or
solvent.
 LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

 The surface is then coated with a thin film of developer,

an absorbent material capable of drawing traces of
penetrant from the defects back onto the surface.
 Brightly colored dyes or fluorescent materials that glow
under ultraviolet light are generally added to the penetrant
to make these traces more visible, and the developer is often
selected to provide a contrasting background.
 Radioactive tracers can also be added and used in
conjunction with photographic paper to produce a
permanent image of the defects.
 LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

 Cracks, laps, seams, lack of bonding, pinholes, gouges,

and tool marks can all be detected.
 After inspection, the developer and residual penetrant are
removed by a second cleaning operation.
 An alternative procedure is to perform a penetrant test before
any surface-finishing operations, when significant defects will
still be open and available for detection.
 Penetrant inspection systems can range from aerosol spray
cans of cleaner, penetrant, and developer (for portable
applications), to automated, mass-production equipment using
sophisticated computer vision systems.
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 3. MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

 Magnetic particle inspection, is based on the principle that

ferromagnetic materials (such as the alloys of iron, nickel, and
cobalt), when magnetized, will have distorted magnetic fields in
the vicinity of material defects.
 Surface and subsurface flaws, such as cracks and inclusions,
will produce magnetic anomalies that can be mapped with the
aid of magnetic particles on the specimen surface.
 The specimen must be cleaned prior to inspection.
 A suitable magnetic field is then established in the part.
 For a flaw to be detected, it must produce a significant
disturbance of the magnetic field at or near the surface.
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

 If a bar of steel is placed within an energized coil, a magnetic

field will be produced whose lines of flux travel along the axis
of the bar.
 Any defect perpendicular to this axis will significantly alter the
field. If the perturbation is sufficiently large and close enough
to the surface, the flaw can be detected.
 However, if the flaw is in the form of a crack aligned with the
specimen axis, there will be little perturbation of the lines of flux
and the flaw is likely to go undetected.
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

If the cylindrical specimen is then magnetized by passing a

current through it, a circumferential magnetic field will be
produced.
Any axial defect now becomes a significant perturbation, and a
defect perpendicular to the axis will likely go unnoticed.
 To fully inspect a product, therefore, a series of inspections
may be required using various forms of magnetization.
 Passing a current between various points of contact is a
popular means of inducing the desired fields.
 Electromagnetic coils of various shapes and sizes are also
used.
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

 Alternating-current methods are most sensitive to surface

flaws, while direct-current inspections are better for detecting
subsurface defects, such as nonmetallic inclusions.
 Once the specimen has been subjected to a magnetic field,
magnetic particles are applied to the surface in the form of
either a dry powder or a suspension in a liquid carrier.
 These particles are attracted to places where the lines of
magnetic flux break the surface, revealing anomalies that can
then be interpreted.
 To better reveal the orientation of the lines of flux, the particles
are often made in an elongated form.
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

 They can also be treated with a fluorescent material to

enhance observation under ultraviolet light or coated with a
lubricant to prevent oxidation and enhance their mobility.
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 4. ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

 Sound has long been used to provide an indication of product

quality.
 A cracked bell will not ring true, but a fine crystal goblet will
have a clear ring when lightly tapped.
 Striking an object and listening to the characteristic ring is an
ancient art but is limited to the detection of large defects
because the wavelength of audible sound is rather large
compared to the size of most defects.
 By reducing the wavelength of the signal to the ultrasonic
range, typically between 100,000 and 25 million hertz,
ultrasonic inspection can be used to detect rather small
defects and flaws.
 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

 ultrasonic inspection involves sending high-frequency waves

through a material and observing the response.
 Within the specimen, sound waves can be affected by voids,
impurities, changes in density, delaminations, interfaces with
materials having a different speed of sound, and other
imperfections.
 At any interface, part of the ultrasonic wave will be reflected
and part will be transmitted.
 If the incident beam is at an angle to an interface where
materials change, the transmitted portion of the beam will be
bent to a new angle by the phenomenon of refraction.
 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

 By receiving and interpreting either transmitted or reflected

signals, ultrasonic inspection can be used to detect flaws
within the material, measure thickness from only one side, or
characterize metallurgical structure.
 An ultrasonic inspection system begins with a pulsed oscillator
and transducer, a device that transforms electrical energy into
mechanical vibrations.
 The pulsed oscillator generates a burst of alternating voltage,
with a characteristic principal frequency, duration, profile, and
repetition rate.
 This burst is then applied to a sending transducer, which uses
a piezoelectric crystal to convert the electrical oscillations into
mechanical vibrations.
 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

 Because air is a poor transmitter of ultrasonic waves, an

acoustic coupling medium—generally a liquid such as oil or
water—is required to link the transducer to the piece to be
inspected and transmit the vibrations into the part.
 The pulsed vibrations then propagate through the part with a
velocity that depends on the density and elasticity of the test
material.
 A receiving transducer is then used to convert the transmitted
or reflected vibrations back into electrical signals.
 The receiving transducer is often identical to the sending unit,
and the same transducer can actually perform both functions.
 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

 A receiving unit then amplifies, filters, and

processes the signal for display, possible recording,
 and final interpretation.
 An electronic clock is generally integrated into the system to
time the responses and provide reference signals for
comparison purposes.
 Depending on the test objectives and part geometry, several
different inspection methods can be employed:
 1. In the pulse-echo technique, an ultrasonic pulse is
introduced into the piece to be inspected, and the echoes from
opposing surfaces and any intervening flaws are detected
 by the receiver.
 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

 The time interval between the initial emitted pulse and the
 various echoes can be displayed on the horizontal axis of a
display screen.
 Defects are identified by the position and amplitude of the
various echoes.
 Figure shows a schematic of a single-transducer pulse-echo
inspection and the companion signal as it would appear on a
display.
 Figure a depicts a dual-transducer pulse-echo examination.
 Both cases require access to only one side of the specimen.
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

 2. The through-transmission technique requires separate

sending and receiving transducers.
 A pulse is emitted by the sending transducer and detected by
a receiver on the opposite surface.
 Flaws in the material decrease the amplitude of the
transmitted signal because of back-reflection and scattering.
 3. Resonance testing can be used to determine the thickness
of a plate or sheet from one side of the material.
 Input pulses of varying frequency are fed into the material.
 When resonance is detected by an increase in energy at the
transducer, the thickness can be calculated from the speed of
sound in the material and the time of traverse.
 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

 Ultrasonic thickness gages can be calibrated to provide direct

digital readout of the thickness of a material.
 Reference standards—specimens of known thickness or
containing various types and sizes of machined “flaws”—are
often used to ensure consistent results and aid in interpreting
any indications of internal discontinuities.
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 5. X-Ray Radiography

 Used for detecting blow holes, porosity, cracks etc.

 X-Rays are produced in a X-Ray Tube where a
filament provides electrons which proceed towards
the target (anode). During the process a part of
kinetic energy is converted into radiation or X-Rays.
 The portion of metal piece to be inspected is exposed
to X-Rays emitted tube.
 X-Ray film is placed behind and in contact with the
metal part.
 During exposure, the X-Rays penetrate the metal part
and affect the X-Ray film.
 Portion of parts having defects transmit X-Rays better
than those having no defects. So the film appears to
be darker where defects are present.
 The exposed and developed film is called as
Radiograph.
 6. Gamma Ray Radiography

 Used for detecting defects in Metal Parts thicker then

those inspected by X-Rays.
 Scattering of Gamma Rays is less.
 Gamma methods are time consuming.
 Gamma Rays are emitted in all directions. Therefore
a number of metal parts can be inspected.
 Sources of Gamma rays are Radium, Radon, Cobalt
60 etc.
 Better penetration compared to X-Ray is obtained
using Gamma rays.
Gamma Ray Radiography
Metals for Casting
 Metals for Casting

 Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather

than pure metals
 Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties
of product are better
 Casting alloys can be classified as:
 Ferrous
 Non-ferrous
 Ferrous Casting Alloys:
1. Cast Iron

 Most important of all casting alloys

 Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of
all other metals combined
 Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3)
white cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast
irons
 Typical pouring temperatures  1400C (2500F),
depending on composition
 Ferrous Casting Alloys:
2. Steel

 The mechanical properties of steel make it an

attractive engineering material
 The capability to create complex geometries makes
casting an attractive shaping process
 Difficulties when casting steel:
 Pouring temperature is high  1650C (3000F)
 At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so
molten metal must be isolated from air
 Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
 Non-ferrous Casting Alloys:
1. Aluminum

 Generally considered to be very castable

 Low pouring temperatures due to low melting
temperature
 Pure Aluminum Tm = 660C (1220F)
 Properties:
 Light weight
 Range of strength properties by heat treatment
 Easy to machine
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
2. Copper Alloys

 Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze

 Properties:
 Corrosion resistance
 Attractive appearance
 Good bearing qualities
 Limitation: high cost of copper
 Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades,
pump components, ornamental jewelry
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
3. Zinc Alloys

 Very castable, commonly used in die casting

 Low pouring temperatures due to low melting
temperature
 Pure zinc Tm = 419C (786F)
 Good fluidity for ease of casting
 Properties:
 Low creep strength, so castings cannot be
subjected to prolonged high stresses