DR.

RONALD BROWN (RONNIE)

Subject Coordinator
[email protected]
42213039
18.G20

WEEK TWO:
Learning Outcomes:
Understand concepts: Apply concepts of the mole and Avogadro’s number to:
– Atomic weight and molar mass – Perform calculations of to find molar masses, number of moles,
– Use of the mole / Avogadro’s number number of particles

– Limiting reagents – Derive empirical formulae

– Significant figures – Perform calculations to find concentrations of solutions and

diluted solutions
– Calculate theoretical and percentage yields from chemical
reactions

Let’s Go Back to Atomic Mass

Atomic mass units are used to simplify expressing mass of chemical
species.
Atomic Mass Unit (u): 1 u = 1.66054 × 10–24 g.
We choose a single isotope to set the scale for all elements: this is 12C.
⚙ This is how we get 1.01 u (H atom), 16.00 u (O atom) etc.

Carbon naturally occurs as a mixture of 98.93% 12C and 1.07% 13C. The atomic masses
of 12C and 13C are 12.0 u (exactly) and 13.00335 u, respectively.

Average Atomic Mass, i.e. Atomic Weight = ∑[($%&& × %)*+,%+-.)]

AWcarbon = [(12.0 u × 0.9893) + (13.00335 u × 0.0107)]
= 12.01 u

2
Tracking Significant Figures Is A Good Habit

1. All nonzero digits are significant.

2. Zeroes between nonzero digits are significant.
3. Zeroes at the beginning of a number are never significant.
4. Zeroes at the end of a number are significant if it contains a decimal point.

Problem: whole numbers ending in zeroes:

Tracking Significant Figures Is A Good Habit

The least certain measurement limits the number of significant figures in

the answer.

When addition or subtraction is performed, answers are rounded to the

least significant decimal place.

When multiplication or division is performed, answers are rounded to the

same number of digits as the measurement with the fewest number of
significant figures.

4
Formula Weights Are Found With The Periodic Table
Formula weight = sum of the atomic for the atoms in a chemical formula.
For an element like sodium (Na) the formula weight = atomic weight (23.0 u).

eg. What is the formula weight of sulfuric acid?

• Recall naming of acids: ‘ate’ ions → ‘ic’ acids. Contains sulfur. Sulfate ion = SO42-
• Formula? Recall acids increase H+ concentration. Contains H+
• How many of each ion? Recall ‘criss-cross’ method to balance charges. H+ SO42-
• Formula is H2SO4
atomic weight

Atomic weights (from periodic table:

3 sig. fig. 4 sig. fig.
2 d.p. 2 d.p 4 sig. fig.
2 d.p.

Formula weight (H2SO4) = 2 x (AW of H) + 1 x (AW of S) + 4 x (AW of O)

= 2 x (1.01 u) + 32.07 u + 4 x (16.00 u)
= 98.09 u (sig figs: for addition/subtraction, same number of
decimal places as measurement with fewest d.p.)

Molecular Weights Are Found With The Periodic Table

If the substance is a molecule: formula weight is called molecular weight.
Molecular weight: sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in a molecule.

eg. What is the molecular weight of glucose (C6H12O6)?

Atomic weights (from periodic table):

Molecular weight (C6H12O6) = 6 x (AW of C) + 12 x (AW of H) + 6 x (AW of O)

= 6 x (12.01 u) + 12 x (1.01 u) + 6 x (16.00 u)
= 72.06 u + 12.12 u + 96.00 u
= 180.18 u

‘Molecular weight’ used when talking about molecular compounds (eg. water).
‘Formula weight’ used when talking about IONIC COMPOUNDS (eg. NaCl).

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What Are Formulas Like As Percentages By Mass?
We can find the percentage mass of each element in a compound using:

(number of atoms)(atomic weight)

% Element = × 100
(FW of the compound)

For example, we can calculate the percentage of carbon in glucose (C6H12O6):

(6)x(12.01 u)
% Carbon = × 100
(180.18 u)

= 39.9933%
= 33.99% (4 sig. fig.)

A New Unit of Measurement: The Mole

In a lab, we cannot work with individual molecules: they are too small.
One mole (mol) is the number of particles found in exactly 12 g of 12C.
This was experimentally found to be 6.02 × 1023 particles (atoms or
molecules). This number is called Avogadro’s Number.

8
Formula Weight to Molar Mass: SAME NUMBER
A molar mass is the mass of 1 mol of a substance (i.e. g/mol).
The molar mass of an element is the atomic weight for the element from the periodic
table.
If it is diatomic, it is twice that atomic weight.
The formula weight (in u) will be the same number as the molar mass (in g/mol).

One Mole Contains Avogadro’s No. of Particles

One mol of atoms, ions, or molecules contains Avogadro’s number of those particles.
The number of atoms of an element in a mole is the subscript in a formula (number of
atoms of that element in the formula) times Avogadro’s number.

10
Mass-Mole-Particle Relationships Are VERY Useful

mol g
$%&& Probably your most useful formula!
+=
$12%3 $%&& gmol-1

Question: How many moles of caffeine are in a cup of coffee?

O CH3
H 3C C N
N C
CH
C C N
O N
CH3

100 mg of caffeine in
average cup of coffee.

11

Mass-Mole-Particle Relationships Are VERY Useful

Question: How many molecules are there in 8.0 grams of glucose?

(8.0 g) MW = 180.18 u 1. Want this first. 2. Answer (molecules).

(previously calculated)
MM= 180.18 g mol-1

*+&&
1. +!"#$%&' ) *%"+, *+&&
2. No. of molecules in 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 mol-1
in 0.0444 mol = 6.022 x 1023 mol-1 x 0.0444 mol
-./ !
) = 2.67 x 1022 molecules
0-/.0- !*%" !"
= 2.7 x 1022 molecules (2 sig. fig.)
= 0.0444 mol

12
We Can Use These Relationships To Find Formulas
A compound was isolated from a sample of sunscreen and analysed via elemental
analysis. This revealed it was composed of carbon (61.31%), hydrogen (5.14%),
nitrogen (10.21%), and oxygen (23.33%). What is its empirical formula?
Assume 100 g for simplicity, then convert all to moles:
*+&& *+&& *+&& *+&&
+1 = +5 = +8 = +9 =
*%"+, *+&& *%"+, *+&& *%"+, *+&& *%"+, *+&&

20.30 ! 6.07 ! 0/.40 ! 43.33 !

= 04./0 !*%"!" = 0./0 !*%"!" = 07./0 !*%"!" =
02.// !*%"!"

= 5.1049 mol = 5.0891 mol = 0.7288 mol = 1.4581 mol

The molar ratio is now: 5.1049 : 5.0891: 0.7288 : 1.4581 (C : H : N : O)

If we divide all by the smallest number of moles (0.7288 mol), we get:

7.0 : 7.0 : 1.0 : 2.0 (C : H : N : O)

This is para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA),
found in sunscreen.
i.e. C7H7NO2 (the empirical formula).

If you have the molar mass of the compound, you can find the molecular formula
from an empirical formula.
13

Why Moles? Atoms Have Different Masses

Molar calculations allow us to analyse chemical reactions quantatively.
– How many moles reacted?
– How many moles were produced?
– What mass does this correspond to?
For example, consider the following chemical reaction:
2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) ® ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
ü 2 molecules of HCl react with one atom of zinc metal
ü 2 moles of HCl react with one mole of zinc metal
2 grams of HCl react with one gram of zinc metal

We can then calculate the corresponding masses of each:

2HCl(aq) Zn(s) ZnCl2(aq) H2(g)
72.92 g (in solution) 65.39 g (solid metal) 136.29 g (in solution) 2.016 g (gas)

This is how much we would theoretically produce using exactly 1 mol 14

of zinc.
Now We Can Analyse Reactions Quantatively
The Ostwald Process for the industrial manufacture of nitric acid is an example of
chemical engineering.

Final step in process:

3NO2(g) + H2O(l) ® 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)

What mass of nitric acid would be produced from 100 g of nitrogen dioxide?

1.) From periodic table, MW (NO2) = 46.01 g mol-1 3.) Stoichiometric ratio (HNO3 : NO2) = 2 : 3
! #$%('() )
MW (HNO3) = 63.02 g mol-1 i.e. 2 mol HNO3 per 3 mol NO2, or + #$%(() !)
"
*+&& ! #$%('()! )
2.) +89# ) *%"+, *+&& mol HNO3 = 2.1734 mol x + #$%(()" )

)
0// ! = 1.4489 mol
72./0 ! *%" !"

= 2.1734 mol 4.) !"##'()! = 1.4489 mol x 63.02 g mol-1

= 91.3118 g
!"##
rearrange: n % !$%"& !"##
= 91.3 g (3 sig. fig.)
15

What Molar Relationships Have We Used?

3NO2(g) + H2O(l) ® 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)

100 g NO2 91.3 g HNO3

molar mass

molar mass

mol NO2 stoichiometry mol HNO3

16
Percentage Yields Are A Crucial Part of Chemistry
We calculated that 100 g of NO2 would give us 91.3 g of HNO3. What if we
conducted this reaction in reality and only obtained 80 g?
The answer we obtained was a theoretical yield: the maximum amount of product
that can theoretically be made in a chemical reaction.

We could calculate our actual yield as a percentage of the theoretical yield:

,-./,% 012%3
% Yield = .42$52.1-,% 012%3 x 100 %
-/ !
= x 100 %
:0.3 !
= 87.6232 %
= 88 % (2 sig. fig.)
i.e. we made 88% of what we theoretically could have.

17

Limiting Reagents Are Crucial for Percentage Yields

The limiting reactant is the reactant present in the smallest stoichiometric amount.
⚙ In other words, it is the reactant you will run out of first.

The limiting reactant here is H2:

O2 is in excess:
all H2 has been
consumed.

limiting reactant is used to determine amounts of products produced and amounts

of any other reactant(s) used in a reaction. A reaction will only produce as much as
the limiting reagent can give.

This is important for deciding which reactants to use to calculate theoretical

yields when given gram quantities!
– 18
Limiting Reagents Are Crucial for Percentage Yields
Iron metal is generated in a blast furnace by reducing iron(III) oxide with carbon:
2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) ® 4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
This was conducted in a small lab furnace, using 35.0 g iron(III) oxide and 11.2 g carbon
and produced 18.6 g of iron metal. What was the theoretical yield?
Must determine the limiting reagent! This is what we use to calculate the yield.

19

There Are Many Expressions For Concentration

Many reactions take place in solution.
It is often necessary to calculate amount of moles or grams dissolved in solution (i.e.
concentration).
– recall: a solution is a homogenous mixture.
– SOLUTE is dissolved within SOLVENT.

There are various ways to express concentration:

• percent weight to weight (% w/w)

Covered in Week 3
• percent volume to volume (%v/v) Workshop 1
• mole fraction (xi º mol x / S moles all species present)

• molarity, or molar concentration (mol L-1 º mol / L º M)

always expressed in LITRES

20
There Are Many Expressions For Concentration

50.0 g of NaCl are added to a solution and the final volume is 175 mL. What is
the molar concentration of NaCl?
'/22
!./0) 1 '()/3 '/22

!"." $
=
!%.! $ '() !"

= 0.847 mol

*%"'&
Molar concentration of NaCl =
";<,'&
".%*+ '()
=
".,+! -
= 4.88 mol/L ≡ 4.88 mol L-1 ≡ 4.88 M (3 sig. fig.)

21

If We Dilute A Solution, No. of Moles Stays the Same!

A solution can be diluted by adding ONLY solvent. Relevant to
The concentration is LOWER, but the MOLES don’t change. Week 4 Lab 2

22
If We Dilute A Solution, No. of Moles Stays the Same!
The concentration of the new solution can be determined by: Relevant to
Week 4 Lab 2
C 1V 1 = C 2V 2 very useful formula

Where C1 and V1 are the respective concentration (mol L-1) and volume (L) of the
initial solution and C2 and V2 of the diluted solution.

eg. If you have a stock solution of 0.25 M ammonia (NH3) and want to make 1.0 L of a 0.1 M
solution, how much of the stock solution would you need to use in your dilution?

23

DR. RONALD BROWN (RONNIE)

Subject Coordinator
[email protected]
42213039
18.G20

WEEK TWO:
Learning Outcomes:
Understand concepts: Apply concepts of the mole and Avogadro’s number to:
– Atomic weight and molar mass – Perform calculations of to find molar masses, number of moles,
– Use of the mole / Avogadro’s number number of particles

– Limiting reagents – Derive empirical formulae

– Significant figures – Perform calculations to find concentrations of solutions and

diluted solutions
– Calculate theoretical and percentage yields from chemical
reactions

24