Lecture Notes: Group Theory I

Math 101
October 26 30, 2015 patrick pan and timothy kang

1 Introduction: Groups and Homomorphisms

Definition 1.1. A group (G, ⇤) is a combination of a set G and a binary operation ⇤ that
satisfies the following properties:

(a) ⇤ is closed: a, b 2 G ) a ⇤ b 2 G

(b) ⇤ is associative: 8a, b, c 2 G, (a ⇤ b) ⇤ c = a ⇤ (b ⇤ c)

(c) There is an identity element e 2 G with a ⇤ e = e ⇤ a = a

(d) Each element a in G has an inverse, usually denoted a 1 , where a ⇤ a 1

=a 1
⇤a=e

Definition 1.2. Let (G, ⇤) be a group. A subset H of (G, ⇤) is a subgroup of (G, ⇤) if it

satisfies the following properties:

(a) H is closed under the group operation: if a, b 2 H, then a ⇤ b 2 H

(b) The identity element e 2 G is also in H

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(c) H is closed under inverse: if h 2 H, then h 2H

Remark. Condition (b) is a consequence of (a) and (c). To prove that H is a subgroup of
G, it is enough to prove that
8a, b 2 H, a ⇤ b 1 2 H.

Definition 1.3. A homomorphism between groups (G1 , ⇤1 ) and (G2 , ⇤2 ) is a function f :

G1 ! G2 that preserves the group law (or structure):

8a, b 2 G1 : f (a ⇤ b) = f (a) ⇤ f (b),

From this, one can show that

f (e1 ) = e2 , f (a 1 ) = [f (a)] 1 .

where ei is the neutral element of Gi (i = 1, 2).

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Proof.

f (e1 ⇤1 e1 ) = f (e1 ) =) f (e1 ) ⇤2 f (e1 ) = f (e1 ) ( since f is a homomomorphism)

=) f (e1 ) 1 ⇤2 [f (e1 ) ⇤2 f (e1 )] = f (e1 ) 1 ⇤2 f (e1 )
=) [f (e1 ) 1 ⇤2 f (e1 )] ⇤2 f (e1 ) = f (e1 ) 1 ⇤2 f (e1 )
=) f (e1 ) = e2

f (a ⇤1 a 1 ) = f (e1 ) =) f (a) ⇤2 f (a 1 ) = e2 ( since f is a homomomorphism and f (e1 ) = e2 )

=) [f (a)] 1 = f (a 1 )

Definition 1.4. An endomorphism is a homomorphism where G1 = G2 (in other words,

a homomorphism that maps a group G to itself).
Definition 1.5. An isomorphism is a homomorphism where f is a bijection (in other
words, a homomorphism with an inverse).
Definition 1.6. A monomorphism is an injective homomorphism.
Definition 1.7. An epimorphism is a surjective homomorphism.
Definition 1.8. Let f be a homomorphism from (G1 , ⇤1 ) to (G2 , ⇤2 ). The kernel of f ,
denoted by Ker f , is the pre-image of e2 ; that is, Ker f = {x : x 2 G1 and f (x) = e2 }.
Theorem 1.1. The kernel of a group homomorphism f : G1 ! G2 is a subgroup of G1 .
Theorem 1.2. If ' : (G1 , ⇤) 7 ! (G2 , ⇤) is a homomorphism, then ' is injective i↵ Ker
' = {e1 }.
Proof. f (a) ⇤2 [f (b)] 1 = e2 ) a ⇤1 b 1 = e1 , f (a) ⇤2 f (b 1 ) = e2 ) a ⇤1 b 1 = e1
Using the fact that f is a homomorphism, f (a ⇤1 b 1 ) = e2 =) a ⇤1 b 1 = e1

!: If the kernel is trivial, then the function is injective.

Assume Ker f = {e1 }. If f (a) = f (b) then f (a) ⇤2 [f (b)] 1 = e2 by multiplying both side of
the equality by f (b) 1 . Since f is a homomorphism, we deduce that f (a ⇤1 b 1 ) = e2 . By
assumption, Ker f is trivial, it follows that a ⇤1 b 1 = e1 . Therefore a = b and f is injective.

: If the function is injective, then the kernel is trivial.

Assume f is injective. Then Ker f = {e1 }. 8x 2 G, f (x) = e2 =) x = e1 (unique x, which

is e1 )

Example. Consider a homomorphism ' : (R+ , ⇥) 7 ! (R, +) with x 7 ! ln x.

We know that ' is a homomorphism, where ln (a · b) = ln a+ln b. Ker ' = {x > 0 : ln x = 0}

=) ln x = 0 () x = 1. The inverse function ' 1 : (R, +) 7 ! (R>0 , ⇥) with f : x 7 ! ex ,

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which is also isomorphic (ex+y = ex · ey ). In conclusion, Addition and multiplication are
isomorphic. Directionality matters!

Note: ' is a bijection, so it is also an isomorphism.

Definition 1.9. Gl(n, R) is the set of n ⇥ n matrices with non-zero determinant together
with the operation of multiplication.

Example. Consider the symmetric group S3 (permutations of 3 elements).

S3 = {Id, (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}.

S3 can⇥be considered as a set of matrices:

1 0 0⇤ ⇥0 0 1⇤ ⇥0 1 0⇤ ⇥0 1 0⇤ ⇥0 0 1⇤ ⇥1 0 0⇤
S3 = { 0 1 0 , 1 0 0 , 0 0 1 , 1 0 0 , 0 1 0 , 0 0 1 }.
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
The product of multiplying these matrices is preseved. (Gl(2, Z2 ), ) ⇠
= S3 .

2 Group Order and Cyclic Groups

Definition 2.1. Given a group (G, ⇤) and g 2 G, hgi is the group generated by g. Specif-
ically, hgi = {g n , n 2 Z}, where hgi is the intersection of all subgroups containing g. More
concretely, hgi = {. . . , g 2 , g 1 , e, g, g 2 , g 3 , . . . }.

Theorem 2.1. The intersection of two subgroups of (G, ⇤) is also a subgroup of (G, ⇤)

Proof. Let A and B be subgroups of the group (G, ⇤). This implies that they both contain
the identity element e. e 2 A, e 2 B =) e 2 A \ B . Furthermore because A and B
are subgroups, if a, b 2 A \ B, then a, b 2 A and a, b 2 B =) a ⇤ b 2 A, a ⇤ b 2 B. So
the intersection is closed under the group operation of (G, ⇤). Finally, if x 2 A \ B, then
x 2 A, x 2 B =) x 1 2 A, x 1 2 B =) x 1 A \ B. The intersection is closed under
inverse. As such, the intersection of two subgroups is a subgroup.

Example. Consider (Z6 , +), where Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

h1i = Z6
h2i = {0, 2, 4}
h3i = {0, 3}
h4i = {0, 4, 2}
h5i = h1i = {0, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1}

Theorem 2.2. hgi is always commutative.

Proof. Consider homomorphism ' : (Z, +) 7 ! (G, ⇤), '(n) 7 ! g n

'(n + m) = g n+m = g ⇥ · · · ⇥ g = g ⇥ · · · ⇥ g ⇤ g ⇥ · · · ⇥ g = g n ⇤ g m = '(n) ⇤ '(m)

| {z } | {z } | {z }
n + m times n times m times
'( n) = g n = (g n ) 1
(an equal number of g 1
and g 1 cancel out to produce e)
'( n) ⇤ '(n) = e

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Definition 2.2. Let g 2 (G, ⇤). The order of g, denoted by |g|, is the smallest possible
positive integer such that g |g| = e.
Example. Consider (Z6 , +) (be smart! define Z6 as { 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3} where -2 corresponds
to 4, -1 corresponds to 5, and 6 corresponds to 0)
h1i = Z6
1 has order 6
1| + 1 + 1 {z
+ 1 + 1 + 1} = 0
six times
h2i has order 3
h25i has order 6
25
| + 25 + 25 {z
+ 25 + 25 + 25} = 0 or 25 = 24 + 1, and 1 has order 6
six times
h0i has order 1

Example. Suppose that |g k | = p, where p is prime. If p|k = 0, then the order is 1.

Otherwise, the order is p.
Definition 2.3. |hgi| = |g|. In other words, the order of g 2 G is the cardinality of hgi.
Remark. This implies that order 0 is impossible because you always have the neutral ele-
ment.
Example. Find a group (G, ⇤) that contains an element g of order n.
(Zn , +) with the subgroup generated by 1.
h1i = Zn =) |h1i| = |Zn | =) |h1i| = n

Example. g 2 (G, ⇤). Is hgi countable?

Yes. There exists a surjection Z ! hgi : i 7 ! g i .
Example. For any subgroup H ⇢ G, is H countable?
Not necessarily.
Example. Is there a group with 24601 elements?
Yes, there is: (Z23541 , +). In general, (Zn , +) is a group with n > 0 elements.
Example. Given g 2 G, is |hgi| < |N|?
Not necessarily. Consider an infinite group
Example. Given H ⇢ G, is |H| < |G|?
Not necessarily. Consider an infinite group and its infinite subgroup.
Definition 2.4. A cyclic group is a group generated by one element.
Remark. Cyclic groups have the following properties:
• For a cyclic group generated by an element g of finite order n, we have g n = e. Such
a group is isomorphic to Zn .

• A cyclic group generated by an element of infinite order is isomorphic to Z.

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 • A cyclic group is always commutative because g commutes with itself.
Definition 2.5. Given (G1 , ⇤1 ) and (G2 , ⇤2 ), the Cartesian product (G1 , ⇤1 ) ⇥ (G2 , ⇤2 ) is a
group where the set is defined by (G1 ⇥ G2 ) ⇥ (G2 ⇥ G1 ) ! (G1 ⇥ G2 ) and the operation is
defined by (a1 , b1 ) ⇤ (a2 , b2 ) = (a1 ⇤1 a2 , b1 ⇤2 b2 ).
Example. What is (Z2 ⇥ Z2 , +)? It has 4 elements.

+ (0,0) (0,1) (1,0) (1,1)

(0,0) (0,0) (0,1) (1,0) (1,1)
(0,1) (1,0) (0,0) (1,1) (1,0)
(1,0) (1,0) (1,1) (0,0) (0,1)
(1,1) (1,1) (1,0) (0,1) (0,0)

Remark. Z2 ⇥ Z2 is not isomorphic to Z4 because the former does not have an element
of order 4.
Example. Z2 ⇥ Z3 is isomorphic to Z6
Z2 ⇥ Z3 = {(0, 0)(0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2)}
h(1, 1)i = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 2)}
Since Z6 is a cyclic group and so is the cartesian product.
Remark. This is true in all cases where Za ⇥ Zb = Zab

3 Isomorphisms
How do we show that two groups are non-isomorphic?
(1) Check to see if they have di↵erent cardinalities, which implies that there is no bijection
between them.
Example. (Z6 , +) is not isomorphic to (Z4 , +) because they have di↵erent cardinalities.
Example. Z4 is not isomorphic to Z2 ⇥ Z2 since Z4 has an element of order 4 while
Z2 ⇥ Z2 does not.

(2) Check to see if they are of di↵erent countabilities (i.e. one is countable and the other
isn’t).
Example. Is there an example in the scope of this class?

(3) Check to see if they have di↵erent properties, specifically if one is commutative and the
other isn’t or they have elements of di↵erent order.
Example. (Z6 , +) is not isomorphic to (S3 , 0) because the former is commutative while
the latter is not.
Example. Gl(3, R) is not isomorphic to (R, +) because the latter is commutative while
the former is not.