1

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION AND THEIR APPLICABILITY IN THE

RESEARCH ON THE ROLE OF THE UAE FEDERAL NATIONAL COUNCIL IN

SUPPORTING GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN THE UAE

AND HOW IT IS SHAPING UAE FOREIGN POLICY

Alia Bin Desmal

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1. ABSTRACT

Data collection is a key stage in all research studies. Data mining enables researchers to find

answers to their various research questions. Data collected through various data collection tools

and instruments always provide researchers with better insights on their research topics which

help them answer their research questions. Different types of data can be collected using

different data collection techniques accordingly. Researchers however find it difficult on given

occasions to choose the most appropriate data collection technique to use in collecting the data

that they may be interested in. This article aims to comprehensively discuss various techniques

and tools that can be used in the data collection processes. This article provides a categorical

explanation of the various data collection methodologies, listing some of their advantages,

disadvantages, and ethical considerations to be made while using the methodologies. This paper

also highlights the applicability of each of the mentioned data collection techniques in collecting

data in the research on the roles of UAE’s federal national council in supporting gender equality

and women empowerment in the UAE and how it is shaping UAE’s foreign policy.
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2. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents

1. ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………….2

2. TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………………………...3

3. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………...4

4. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION…………………………………………………5

4.1 Questionnaire Method …………………………………………………………5

4.2 Survey Method …………………………………………………………………9

4.3 Interview Method ……………………………………………………………...11

4.4 Observational Research Method ……………………………………………....14

4.5 Case Study Method ……………………………………………………………16

4.6 Experimental Method ……………………………………………………….....19

4.7 Content Analysis …………………………………………………………….....22

4.8 Scales and Indexes ……………………………………………………………..24

5. CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………………………….26

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………………………….27
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3. INTRODUCTION

Data collection is the systematic procedure of gathering and quantifying raw facts based

on researchers’ variables of interest. Researchers collect data to enable them to obtain answers to

research questions, test hypotheses, and weigh up outcomes. The data collection aspect of

research has proven significant in most fields of study, such as the humanities, business, and

even the physical and social sciences. The methods used in data collection may vary for each

discipline, but the emphasis on ensuring that the collection is accurate, honest, and unbiased

always cuts through. The primary objective of collecting data is to capture quality data that will

provide answers relevant to the questions posed. Accurate data collection is important as it

assists in keeping the research probity regardless of data definition preferences and the field of

study. According to Vogel et al. (2021), data collection instruments should be properly selected

and delineated to reduce the likelihood of errors occurring during data collection.1

Data collection is an important step in research. The best research design does not

guarantee successful project completion, but collecting the required data does. Data collection is

a demanding task requiring proper planning and execution. Before the data collection exercise, a

researcher should determine the required data type. Samples can only be selected from a

population after the determination. Data can be classified as qualitative, quantitative, or mixed if

it blends qualitative and quantitative aspects. Qualitative data are usually descriptive in nature

and categorical. Quantitative data are always numerical, making them mathematically

computable. Such data can be measured using various scales, ranging from nominal, ratio,

interval, and ordinal scales. As mentioned, mixed methods entail a combination of qualitative

1
Vogel, Tiphanie P et al., "Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children and adults.” Vaccine 39, no. 22
(2021): 3038
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and quantitative data in a single research framework, which often increases the reliability and

validity of the research.

4. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Sandra Siedlecki's arguments classify data collection methods into two categories:

primary and secondary. 2. Primary data refers to data that is firsthand, unchanged, and not yet

published, making such data authentic, objective, and more reliable. It is always impossible to

achieve reliable results by independently using secondary data in research without primary data.

This section will focus on the primary data collection methods, which are based on the personal

collection of raw facts for study purposes, which no one will have access to until published.

Some primary data collection methods discussed in this section include surveys and

questionnaires, interviews, observational research, case studies, experiments, content analysis,

and scales and indices.

4.1 Questionnaire Method

A questionnaire is a research tool used in data collection and is mostly used to conduct

surveys. They always include structured questions and prompts to extract useful information

from the respondents. Pandey and Pandey (2021) stated that qualitative research uses

questionnaires sparingly. Pandey and Pandey added that questionnaires are advantageous over

other survey techniques because their administration is cost-effective.3. This is because of the

standardized nature of the answers needed. As a type of survey, questionnaires also face wording

and question construction challenges, just like other opinion polls. It is possible to distinguish

between questionnaires with questions aggregated into indices or scales and those with questions

that aim to measure distinct variables, per the reports by Siraj-Blatchford in 2020.4
2
Sandra L, Siedlecki. "Understanding descriptive research designs and methods." Clinical Nurse Specialist 34,
no. 1 (2020): 9.
3
Pandey, Prabhat, and Meenu Mishra Pandey. Research methodology tools and techniques. Bridge Center, 2021.
4
John, Siraj-Blatchford. "Surveys and questionnaires: An evaluative case study." 225
 6

The survey and questionnaire case study by Siraj-Blatchford states that questionnaires

that measure separate variables usually include questions on preferences, facts, and behavior. 5

Questionnaires usually comprise questions with set formats for the respondents to answer. There

is always a distinction between open-ended and closed-ended questions. Open-ended questions

always give the interviewees the freedom to formulate their answers. At the same time, closed-

ended questionnaires often have several fixed options from which the respondents must choose

their answers.5

In the case of closed-ended questionnaires, the response options provided are always

supposed to be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. The response scales from closed-ended

questionnaires are dichotomous if only two alternatives exist. They can be termed nominal-

polytomous if they have more than two unordered alternatives from which to choose. The ones

with more than two ordered options are referred to as ordinal-polytomous. The bounded ones,

also called continuous, present continuous scales to the respondents.6. Response scales later

incorporate the responses given by respondents to open-ended questionnaires. The question

sequence in questionnaires should always have a logical ascending flow from the least to the

most sensitive and the most general to the most specific. The flow regarding the order in which

questions should be administered should be followed when constructing questionnaires, from

screens to warm-ups, transitions, skips, and then to formula changes.

Questionnaires can be administered face-to-face, through pen and paper, in computerized

formats, and by adaptive computerized methods. Face-to-face administration enables the

interviewer to present items orally to the respondents. In pencil-to-paper administration, the

questionnaire is always presented on paper. Computerized administration involves the

5
John, Siraj-Blatchford. "Surveys and questionnaires: An evaluative case study." 229
6
Pandey and Pandey, 2021
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dispensation of items on computers. In contrast, adaptive computerized administration involves

presenting items on a computer, after which the computer selects and optimizes items based on

the answers that meet estimated needs.

Some concerns arise about questionnaires, sensitizing the need to ensure the questions are

presented in an appropriate order. Certain sensitive questions, like those on sexual activity and

income, should always come at the end of the surveys to give room for the researchers to

establish the trust of their respondents.7 Other recommended routine questions include age,

marital status, and gender. Double-barreled questions are highly discouraged in surveys and

should not be considered because they are always problematic and often require respondents to

respond to two questions with a single answer. Researchers should also steer clear of emotionally

charged words and those that might be biased.

4.1.1 Advantages of Questionnaires

The advantages of questionnaires are:

i. Administration of questionnaires is cost-effective and enables a wider reach within a

short period of time.

ii. The results of questionnaires can easily be quantified.

iii. Data collected via questionnaires can be objectively and scientifically analyzed as

compared to other forms of research.

iv. The data collected through questionnaires can be used to measure change by comparing

and contrasting it with other research.

4.1.2 Disadvantages of Questionnaires

There are several disadvantages to questionnaires that must be considered. Some of the

difficulties that researchers may face while using questionnaires include:

7
Pandey and Pandey, 2021
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i. Questionnaires offer little room for understanding some forms of information, like

feelings and emotions.

ii. Questionnaires ask only for a limited amount of information that respondents provide

without explanations.

iii. It is hard to determine how much thought a respondent puts into questions before

providing answers.

iv. Respondents may fail to think within the full context of the situation addressed in the

question.

v. The responses always depend on how the respondents understand and interpret the

questions. Remember, what is good for one may not be for another, leading to a given

degree of subjectivity in the responses.

vi. Questionnaires always act differently than naturally, making them commonly

disregarded in qualitative research.

4.1.3 Applicability of Questionnaires in the Research

Based on the research question “To what extent has the shift from fully appointed to partially

elected FNC membership increased the inclusion of women’s voices and concerns in foreign

policy deliberations?” questionnaires to the Federal National Council (FNC) members may help

in the assessment of their perception of the shift and the implications that the shift has had on

women's participation in foreign policy discussions. Questionnaires can also be used to gather

information on women's experiences in FNC roles and their perceptions of the FNC's role in

supporting women’s empowerment and gender equality in the United Arab Emirates.

4.2 Survey Method

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Surveys are an appropriate method of determining other people's thoughts, feelings, and

opinions.8 Surveys can be set up to enable the collection of more specific or general information.

They are easy to administer and enable researchers to obtain large amounts of data electronically

or face-to-face. In this method, data can be collected by the interviewer personally or via self-

completed surveys. According to Kabir (2023), surveys can be used to explore social behaviors;

however, they are not suitable for evaluating people for government programs that require the

inclusion of all population members.9 Surveys have proven significant in the developmental and

accumulative phases of study, especially when the target population is large. A set of questions is

always provided in this method. The questions are then usually given to a sample chosen for

target populations. The samples provide a presentation of the behaviors and characteristics of the

chosen population. Surveys help explore people's attitudes within a population, determine

behavioural differences among different populations, and discover overtime dynamism by

conducting frequent repeat surveys regularly.

In sample selection, it is important to ensure that sample sizes are chosen on a basis that

makes it possible to select any participant with a non-zero chance. This means that samples

should be carefully chosen using non-hazard and non-volunteer techniques.10 The sampling

process in surveys, as described by Hamed Taherdoost in 2021, starts by defining the target

population, then moves to the selection of a sample frame, choosing the most suitable sampling

method, which can either be random or non-random, and lastly measuring the appropriate sample

size to avoid potential sampling errors and bias.11 Participant biases commonly happen when the

subjects are sensitive and have not developed enough trust in the researcher. Survey questions

8
John, Siraj-Blatchford. 230
9
Kabir, S. M. S. Methods of Data Collection Basic Guidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All
Disciplines. (2023). 207
10
Kabir. 207
11
Taherdoost, Hamed. "Data collection methods and tools for research.” 14
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can be either open-ended to allow participants to answer in their own way, closed-ended to

provide options, or multiple-choice designed to enable the participants to choose their preferred

topic.

Some issues commonly encountered in the administration of surveys include

inappropriate planning, use of inappropriate survey methods and survey designs, interviewer

bias, issues with sample selection, and problems from the respondents' side.12 Errors can also

happen during the data collection process, such as during coding and when the researchers

choose to estimate the survey results. The researchers can minimize errors when they use sample

selection methods, comprehensively define all the concepts involved in the study, appropriately

test surveys, consider all the necessary points in designing the questionnaires, train the

interviewers, and provide them with guides.13 The researchers can engage professional

statisticians if an estimation process has to be included.

4.2.1 Advantages of Surveys

The advantages of surveys include:

i. Surveys can cover a wide range of subjects.

ii. Are not expensive to administer.

iii. Survey responses can easily be analyzed using various data analysis software.

iv. Surveys can help in obtaining descriptive information.

4.2.2 Disadvantages of Surveys

i. The survey reports can be biased.

ii. Surveys may fail to provide in-depth, comprehensive data.

12
John, Siraj-Blatchford. 233
13
John, Siraj-Blatchford. 233.
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iii. There are possibilities for different types of errors, such as interviewers' and sampling

errors.

4.2.3 Applicability of Surveys in the Research

Surveys can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the FNCs in addressing gender-

related issues and shaping the priorities of foreign policy. The surveys can be directed to obtain

answers on the perceived impact of the FNC's initiatives, diplomatic strategies, and policies to

ensure gender equality is achieved. Surveys can help identify barriers to the effective

participation of women in FNC and the effect of women's non-participation on foreign policy

decision-making. The surveys can be presented to different affected parties within UAE in order

to acquire meaningful information relating to societal norms, cultural attitudes, and institutional

challenges women face from their perspectives. Surveys can be useful in tracking changes made

to publications as well as changes in peoples’ attitudes and perceptions towards the FNC.

Different stakeholders like policymakers, gender advocates, the general public, and even a

section of FNC members may have different perspectives about the major areas of concern.

Surveys can be used to get the opinion of the interested stakeholders and FNC members. The

information obtained from the surveys can be useful in boosting the understanding of how

gender balance has influenced the UAE's diplomatic engagements.

4.3 Interview Method

According to Adeoye-Olatunde et al. (2021), interviews are fundamental social

interactions in which questions are asked and data are collected based on the answers provided

by the respondents.14 Interviews contrast with questionnaires, making them ideal for sourcing

confidential data. Interviews, however, require special interviewing skills. Researchers can

14
Adeoye‐Olatunde, Omolola A., and Nicole L. Olenik. "Research and scholarly methods.” 2021. 1361.
 12

employ different methods to conduct interviews.15 Interviews can be conducted face-to-face and

over electronic media such as the telephone. Face-to-face interviews can enable the interviewer

to ask detailed questions, obtain rich data, receive high response rates, explore sensitive issues,

and have the opportunity for further clarifications. Telephone interviews are cheaper and quicker.

Face-to-face interviews have the drawbacks of being expensive, subject to interviewers' bias,

challenging, especially when sensitive topics are involved, and requiring extensive training for

the interviewers.

Interviews can be recorded in various ways. They can be tape-recorded, paper-based, or

in the form of self-reported interviews. Open-ended and closed-ended queries can be used in

interviews to root out quantitative and qualitative data from the interviewees. Researchers tend to

rely on interviews when faced with complicated and sensitive issues, prompting them to inquire

about high-status information.16

4.3.1 Types of Interviews

Interviews are always grouped as structured, unstructured, or semi-structured. These

classifications are discussed below.

Structured: In this type of interview, the respondents often face strongly-matched

questions formulated before the interview sessions. The chances of the respondents facing open-

ended questions are limited. Here, it is always possible to get a guide if the main aim is to

understand the research topic well. This type of interview can best be used in cases that involve

comprehensive literature reviews of given study topics.

Semi-structured Interviews: Semi-structured interviews are done based on a formal

guide. The questions asked by the interviewers are always guided by However, when the need

15
Taherdoost, Hamed. 17.
16
Frechtling, J. An overview of quantitative and qualitative data collection methods the 2022 user-friendly
handbook for project evaluation. (2022). 44.
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arises for extra information on the researcher's side, the conversations can be continued based on

questions initially provided beforehand.17 This type of interview requires adequately trained

interviewers and a proper design of open-ended questions, which is very important. It can also be

suitable for subjects like experience and culture, which must be better understood.

Unstructured Interviews: These interviews are always informal and have neither

structures nor guides. They are just conducted casually, just like a typical conversation.

Interviewers often take brief notes. This type of interview form can be chosen when limited

literature about the studied area exists.

4.3.2 Important Considerations in Conducting Interviews

Conducting interviews can, at times, be challenging or rewarding. Some of the points that should

be considered to conduct successful interviews include:

i. Adequate training of the interviewers is of the essence since they play an important role

in motivating participants to engage in the interview and be able to judge the quality of

the answers provided concerning the interview topic.

ii. The interview setting should be ready, address all the material needs of the interviewer,

and provide the entire interviewer's kit.

iii. Biased comments and thoughts that could be judgmental should not be used because such

bias can affect the findings. Proper interviewer training can help avoid bias.

4.3.3 Applicability of Interviews in the Research

To get answers to the research question "How can female FNC members further leverage

their participation in global parliamentary networks to enhance the UAE's diplomatic

engagements on women's rights," interviews with female FNC members actively engaged in

global parliamentary networking can be effective. The interviews can provide insight into their
17
Adeoye‐Olatunde. 1361
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challenges, experiences, and strategies they have in place to leverage their networks to encourage

women's engagement in diplomatic activities. The interviews can also help extract information

about how gender balance perspectives are incorporated in advisory discussions with the

government. The interview participants will get the opportunity to highlight given case scenarios

where gender issues were discussed, how they were solved, and how they influenced policy

recommendations. Interviews with key people can provide firsthand perspectives on how female

representation has impacted FNC's advocacy for gender-related issues in foreign policy.

4.4 Observational Research Method

In observational research, researchers tend to gather information by observing events,

modes of behavior, interactions, and processes in their study area.18 Observations can be best

used as an appropriate technique for evaluating teaching methods in a classroom. Observational

Research is usually used when other methods, like interviews, cannot be useful in gathering data.

It can be used to evaluate whether the study is proceeding in line with the plan or is successful.

The study can be evaluated using two phases: summative and formative.19

Observations can be useful in analyzing undisclosed quantitative and qualitative concepts

in their natural settings. In systematic observations, certain formal and structured instruments can

be utilized. This includes protocol nominals, ratios, ordinals, and interval scales.20 This makes it

possible to record the observational findings on template coding sheets. Observations help

researchers understand the things that take place in their environment. The method requires great

attention and a good recording of events as they are observed.

18
Siedlecki. 10
19
Frechtling. 44.
20
Siedlecki. 10
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There are two classifications of observational research. These are participant or non-

participant observations.21 Participant observation requires the observer to be actively engaged to

deeply understand the experiences and perspectives of the respondents or the target participants.

On the other hand, non-participant observation does not exhibit any direct involvement in the

activities, and the researchers often observe from a distance. Researchers chose between the two

types of observations based on the research questions and objectives. Both types have their

advantages and limitations. Observational research enables researchers to study real-world

behaviors, giving them insight into how people tend to behave in natural environments.

Observational research can be very effective in studying complicated behaviors and social

interactions that would otherwise be difficult to capture using other methods.

Observational research can be conducted in either controlled or naturalistic settings. In

naturalistic settings, the observations focus on the various forms of behaviour within the natural

setting. A good example of naturalistic observation is observing how children behave in the

playground. Controlled observations, however, occur in controlled environments like research

laboratories. The choice between these two also still depends on the research objectives and

research questions, the answers to which are to be provided via observation.

Some issues arising from observational research include the high chances of potential

observational bias and the difficulty of ensuring that the observations are reliable and can be

validated. It is always important to consider the validity and reliability of the collected data. The

observations should display consistency and accuracy to be considered reliable and valid.22

Researchers should be properly trained, use standardized observation protocols, and triangulate

data from various sources to ensure reliable and valid observations.

21
Siedlecki. 11
22
Fletchtling, J. 47
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4.4.1 Applicability of Observation in the Research

The observation method of data collection can gather data on the functionality and

dynamics within FNC. The data that can be collected includes those from their meetings,

discussions, and decision-making procedures, especially on issues related to foreign policy and

gender equality. Through observation, it can be easy to get original information on gender-

related areas of concern, how they are addressed within the FNC, and how they impact the

United Arab Emirates's foreign policy decisions. Diplomatic engagements, public events, and

media representation can also be observed to identify aspects of women's representation and

empowerment and the impacts of both on foreign policy.

4.5 Case Study Method

In his work, " A Systematic Qualitative Case Study," published in 2021, Alam Md.

Kausar stated that case studies provide an opportunity to thoroughly and descriptively investigate

issues.23 Case studies incorporate different concepts, ranging from individuals to sectors and

organizations. They help researchers study sites precisely and deeply explore them because they

can develop a real-life context from the cases. Case studies are empirical and enable the study of

different occurrences in real-life contexts with unclear boundaries and call for detailed

investigation. Case studies are not themselves considered research methods. However,

researchers collect and analyze data differently, using different methods to acquire the needed

study materials. In such scenarios, qualitative methodologies, interviews, and diaries can be used

to gather data. Moreover, the researchers can collect information from official and personally

provided notes. They can analyze archived data using methods such as grounded theory.24

4.5.1 Types of Case Studies

23
Alam, Md Kausar. "A systematic qualitative case study: questions, data collection, NVivo analysis, and
saturation." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 16, no. 1 (2021):
7.
24
Kabir. 211
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Case studies are broadly classified as single or multiple. Single case studies refer to

single experiments that can be exploited and used to deeply analyze various concepts of interest.

Single-case studies help obtain the initial result for multiple succeeding extended groups in a

case and the study of long-standing theories. On the other hand, multiple case studies cover

different units, whose numbers can positively affect the study results.25 There could be identical

or opposite results for the units considered. Embedded cases often analyze more than one

subunit, while holistic ones usually analyze single units. In these two methods, the number of

units involved is very important. Considering the four highlighted types of case studies, below is

a tabulated representation of how broadly or narrowly case studies can be classified.

Case Design Scope

Type Narrow Broad

Analysis Narrow Single Case Design Multiple Case Design

(Holistic Analysis) (Holistic Analysis)

Broad Single Case Designs Multiple Case Design

(Embedded Analysis) (Embedded Analysis)

The tabulated categorization above is based on the number of study units and cases. Case studies

can also be categorized as:

Explanatory: A case study can be considered explanatory if it studies deep levels of data

to explain the phenomena in data comprehensively. This category matches complex casual cases

with the noted patterns of given phenomena.

Exploratory: Exploratory case studies do not take into consideration in-depth factors.

They help collect data that can be used to achieve protocols before developing study hypotheses

and research questions.

25
Alam, Md Kausar. 9
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Descriptive: Descriptive case studies aim to describe the various phenomena within given

data sets. In such case studies, researchers need descriptive theories to describe the phenomena.

The theories can, however, fail from the word go.

Prospective: These types of case studies aim to determine the outcomes of the process.

They aim to discover what happens after a process.

Retrospective: These types of case studies enable researchers to consider historical

information. They can gather historical data and use it to determine possible outcomes.

Intrinsic: These are case studies with subjects that align with the interests of the

researchers.

Instrumental: These are case studies in which individuals provide the researchers with

information beyond the common occurrences within a setting.

4.5.2 Evaluation and Interpretation of Case Study Data

To effectively analyze case study data, several steps have to be considered. The first step

is to gather and organize the data, which the researchers will use to identify the key patterns and

themes in the data. With the gathered data, the researchers can identify the recurring ideas and

concepts that would help them get answers to the various research questions. The researchers

then analyze the data to identify the variables' explanatory factors and causal relationships to

help explain the phenomena under study. To interpret case study data, one must make sense of

the study findings and use the analyzed information to draw conclusions. For researchers to

ensure that the data supports their interpretations, they must consider alternative explanations for

their findings and the limitations of case studies. These may include potential bias and an

inability to generalize findings.

4.5.3 Applicability of Case Study Method in the Research

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Research on the FNC’s roles in supporting gender equality and women's empowerment,

as well as case study methods of data collection, can be used to examine the women's

empowerment and gender equality initiatives that the FNC is undertaking. Some cases can

provide qualitative data that can be manipulated to gain deeper insights into the interventions

FNC has implemented and their most likely outcomes. Case studies on areas such as the UAE's

engagements in promoting domestic and international women's rights can provide meaningful

information on the UAE government's challenges in restoring gender parity.

The cases can also provide information about the strategies to ensure women's

empowerment and some of the outcomes of the already-implemented courses of action. Case

studies can focus on specific areas of interest, such as diplomatic engagements, legislative

reforms, and special education programs, to analyze how effective the implications for foreign

policies have been.

4.6 Experimental Method

Experiments are used to collect data. Hox and Hennie, in their encyclopedia of social

measurement published in 2021, stated that while using experiments, researchers can create

research situations, select the participants, and skillfully manipulate independent variables,

which can affect other dependent variables. This can help them explore how independent

variables overshadow the dependent variables.26 In a nutshell, the experimental method attempts

to discover casual relationships, also known as effect and cause relationships, between the

variables.

4.6.1 Components of Experimental Methods

26
Hox, Joop J., and Hennie R. Boeije. "Data collection, primary vs. secondary." Encyclopedia of Social
Measurement 1, no. 1 (2020): 596
 20

The main components of experimental methods include randomized controlled traits, quasi-

experimental designs, and controls for confounding variables.

i. Randomized Controlled Traits

Crane et al. (2022) defined randomized control traits as an experimental design randomly

assigning participants to different groups, like control or treatment groups.27 The random

assignment of Research minimizes the impacts of the confounding variables to ensure that any

resultant difference between the groups is due to the interventions being studied. Randomized

control traits are widely considered golden standards that can be used to evaluate how effective

the interventions are. They also allow for assessing the causal relationships between the

interventions and the outcomes. The major challenge facing randomized control traits is that they

can be hard to execute, especially in social science research, where there are several ethical

considerations and practical constraints to be factored in.

ii. Quasi-Experimental Designs

Quasi-experimental designs show some slight similarity with randomized control traits.

They, however, do not involve the random assignment of participants. In this design, participants

are assigned based on circumstances. Quasi-experimental designs are often used in situations

where random assignments are not ethical and lack aspects of feasibility.28 Even though this

design is less rigorous, it can still provide meaningful insights into cause-and-effect

relationships.

iii. Controlling for Confounding Variables

In experimental research, it is important to control confounding variables to ensure that the

observed effects are not due to factors other than the studied interventions. Confounding

27
Crane et al., "Online crowdsourcing as a quasi-experimental method.” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 23, no. 2
(2022): 334.
28
Crane et al., 334
 21

variables are factors associated with independent and dependent variables, which are the

interventions and the outcomes.29 If not well controlled, they can distort the study results. The

confounding variables can be controlled in various ways. These include using random

assignments to ensure an even distribution of the variables and using statistical methods like

regression to control the variables in the analysis phase.

4.6.2 Ways in which Experimental Methods Can Be Used in the Research

Typically, experimental methods are not deemed applicable in research involving the

Federal National Council and its impacts on foreign policy and gender equality due to ethical

considerations and the nature of the subject matter. Experiments involve variable manipulation,

the outcomes, and the effects of the manipulation, which may lack certain ethical aspects

concerning the research topic.

However, experiments can be used to design specific policy interventions relating to foreign

policy and gender equality. The policies can be implemented within FNC and tracked to

determine their effectiveness. Public opinion experiments can also be conducted to determine the

public's opinion on FNC's role in promoting gender equality. Simulation exercises can be used.

For instance, FNC members can make decisions related to foreign policies and gender equality in

controlled environments. This experiment would aim to determine the effects of the control

environment on the types of decisions made about the subject matter.

4.7 Content Analysis Method

Content analysis is a data collection method commonly used to systematically analyze

textual, audio, or visual content to identify themes, patterns, and meaning in the data. According

to the arguments by Kleinheksel et al. (2020), content analysis can systematically and objectively

29
Crane et al., 335
 22

interpret certain communication contents.30 The contents can be categorized and coded according

to certain predetermined criteria, allowing the researchers to conduct thematic and pattern

analysis on the data. Content analysis can be used to explore several research questions and

uncover, uncover, and understand messages in the contents being evaluated.

4.7.1 Types of Content Analysis

There are several classifications of content analysis. The research objectives and type of

content to be analyzed always determine the content analysis method to be used. Some types of

content analysis include the following:

Textual content analysis: This type of content analysis aims to identify themes and

patterns in written texts. It is often used in analyzing visual and written content.

Visual content analysis: This is commonly used to analyze visual representations such as

images to identify themes and patterns. The contents commonly studied using this type of

analysis include photographs and advertisements.

Audio content analysis: Audio content analysis involves the analysis of sounds,

recordings, and spoken languages to identify the evident themes and patterns in them. Audo

content analysis is used to study the contents of audio recordings, speeches, and interview

sessions.

4.7.2 Coding and Categorization Procedures

These refer to the major steps that must be considered in content analysis, which involve

assigning codes to various contents based on predetermined criteria. The coding part involves

identifying specific elements within a given piece of content that may be relevant to the research

questions. Categorization involves grouping codes based on similarities to identify their themes

30
Kleinheksel, A. J., Nicole Rockich-Winston, Huda Tawfik, and Tasha R. Wyatt. "Demystifying content
analysis." American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 84, no. 1 (2020): 7113
 23

and patterns.31 Researchers should develop coding schemes that clearly define the codes and the

code categories used in the analysis. The coding schemes should be based on relevant theories

and research objectives. The complexity of the analysis would determine whether the coding

process would be manually executed or automated.

4.7.3 Applications of Content Analysis in Social Science Research

Content analysis is widely used in social science research to study various phenomena.

Content analysis can be used to analyze media content to get public opinion and extract

information on the representation of various groups. The analysis can provide valuable insights

that allow researchers to discover various hidden meanings of messages that underlie the content

being analyzed. Content analysis faces several challenges, including the inability to analyze

content details correctly and the increased chances of subjective interpretations.

Researchers must always consider the limitations of their analysis and interpretation of

various contents.

Content analysis can be applied in the research about FNC to collect data by analyzing

various FNC documents, speeches, reports, and related materials by other parties of interest, such

as international organizations and government agencies. This method can help identify key

themes in FNC's activities and highlight potential changes in FNC's approaches over time.

Content analysis can also help identify contradictions in FNCs' statements and courses of action

and any shift in FNCs' approaches to gender equality issues.

4.8 Scales and Indexes Method

Lionello et al. (2021) describe scales and indexes as tools used for measurement in social

science research. They primarily help quantify abstract concepts that can be observed and

31
Kleinheksel et al., 7113
 24

measured directly, like behaviour, attitudes, and beliefs.32 While using scales and indexes,

numerical values are assigned to the responses on a scale, which allows for the quantification and

analysis of complex concepts. Scales and indices are commonly used to measure variables in

surveys and questionnaires, among other data collection instruments.

4.8.1 Types of Scales

There are several types of scales used in social science research which include:

Likert scales always aim to know how much a person agrees with something. The scales

usually present several statements to the respondents. The respondents are then required to state

the degree to which they agree with the claims in statements presented to them. The respondents

can strongly agree or disagree with the statements.

Semantic differential scales measure objects or concepts' meanings within a bipolar

dimension. The respondents have to rate the objects qualitatively. If it is a question about how

they feel, they can respond using happy or sad.

Thurstone scales: Arfandi (2020) defined the Thurstone scale as asking respondents

whether they agree with a given series of statements.33 The statements always provide a range of

options on a specific issue. The responses are then used to determine the respondents' weighted

score, which can be used to rank their attitudes toward the issue being addressed.

4.8.2 Creation and Validation of Scales

The creation and validation of scales involve a complicated process with many steps. The

creation process starts with defining the constructs that the scale will measure to determine the

types of theories they are grounded on and how clearly they have been defined.34 The researchers

32
Lionello, Matteo, Francesco Aletta, Andrew Mitchell, and Jian Kang. "Introducing a method for interval
correction on multiple Likert scales." Frontiers in Psychology 11 (2021): 602831
33
Arfandi, Anas. "The development of a Thurstone scale." In Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 1456,
no. 1, p. 012038. IOP Publishing, 2020.
34
 25

will then need to develop a set of items reflecting the constructs' relevance, conciseness, and

clarity. After item development, pilot tests are conducted to evaluate how valid and reliable the

stipulated measurement scale is. To evaluate the scale, it can be administered to a small sample

of respondents in order analyzing their responses. The scale can be described as reliable if it is

consistent and valid and if it guarantees accuracy.

Researchers can always revise the scales after pilot tests using the meaningful feedbacks

that they receive. After the revision, larger validation studies can then be conducted to further

test the scales' reliability and validity. Large validation studies are done by administering the

scales to slightly larger samples in order to receive responses for further analysis. Researchers

can collect valid and reliable data on complicated social phenomena using accurate scales.

4.8.3 Applications of Scales and Indexes in the Research

Scales and indexes that provide a measure of women's empowerment, gender equality,

and political participation can be used to generate qualitative data that can be used for

comparative analysis between the UAE and other nations. The data can be used to assess the

UAE's progress in addressing the challenge related to the subject matter through benchmarks.

Various indices can be used to measure the political participation and representation of women.

Examples include gender inequality and gap indices.

5 CONCLUSION

In research studies, data collection is always of great importance. For research problems to be

solved efficiently, the data collection process should be well formulated and properly

coordinated. This paper has extensively discussed the various methods that can be used to collect

primary data. Often, the various methods pose many challenges to the researchers who use them

in their data mining processes. This paper has discussed some of those challenges and
 26

highlighted some ethical considerations any researcher must consider during the data collection

process. The primary data collection methods discussed include questionnaires, surveys,

interviews, observations, case studies, experimental methods, content analysis, and scales and

indexes. For some methods, advantages and disadvantages have been listed, as well as the

suitable circumstances under which each may be used. This work has also mentioned some of the

challenges faced during data collection. Accurate data collection is significant to researchers and

is crucial to maintaining the integrity of the research, regardless of data definition preferences or

the field of study.

 27

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