ECL404

RF & Microwave Engineering

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 Contents:
▪ Introduction: RF & Microwave spectrum, Historical Background, Typical application
of RF & Microwaves,
▪ Microwave Tubes: Limitation of conventional tubes in microwaves, Two cavity and
multicavity Klystron, Reflex Klystron, Magnetron, Travelling wave tube, Backward
wave oscillator – working principles, characteristics.
▪ Semiconductor Microwave Device: Tunnel diode, Gunn diode, IMPATT diode,
TRAPATT diode, Microwave bipolar transistor, hetero-junction bipolar transistor,
parametric amplifier.
▪ Passive Components: S- matrix, Directional coupler, Bethe-hole coupler, Magic tee,
Hybrid ring, Circulator, Isolator.
▪ Microwave Measurement: Measurement of VSWR-Low, Medium and High,
Measurement of power, Bolometer, Frequency measurement, Impedance
measurement. Application of Microwaves: Introduction to satellite communication,
Radar, Industrial application of microwaves.
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 Conventional Tubes

Vacuum Tubes – Triode, Tetrode, Pentode etc.

• Electrons flow through vacuum
• Contains a cathode, an anode and one or more electrodes called grids.
• Voltage controlled devices
• Can be operated at very high voltages
• Can produce high powers
• Useful below microwave frequencies

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 High Frequency Limitations of Conventional Tubes
• Conventional tubes fails to operate above 1 GHz due to-
➢ Stray Reactance
▪ Inter-electrode Capacitance
▪ Lead Inductance
➢ Transit Time/angle effect
➢ Gain BW Product Limitation
➢ Skin Effect: Conductor Losses
➢ Radiation Losses
➢ Dielectric Losses

Microwave Theory and Techniques | Prof. Girish Kumar, IIT Bombay 4

 Inter-electrode Capacitance
• A capacitance exists when two pieces of metal are separated Triode
by a dielectric.
• The capacitance between two electrodes is called as inter-
Plate/
electrode capacitance and it is given by- Anode

C
gp

𝗌𝐴
𝐶= Grid Cpk
𝑑

1 Cgk
𝑋𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

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 Lead Inductance
• The common lead inductance is the inductance associated with the electrodes
Triode
of the vacuum tubes.
Plate/
𝑳 = 𝒍Τ𝝁𝑨 and 𝑿𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳 Anode

Lp
• Input impedance matching problem at microwave frequencies.
• Small fraction of input reach to terminal for amplification.
Lg
• The inductance of the cathode is common to both the Grid
Grid
and anode circuit. This provides the path for regenerative feedback.
• These inductances and inter-electrode capacitance form
unwanted tuned circuit.
➢ Produce parasitic oscillations
Lk
Cathode

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 Transit Time/angle effect
• The time taken by an electron to travel from cathode to anode is Triode
called as transit time and it is given by 𝑟 = 𝑑Τ𝒗𝟎 and transit angle is given Plate/
by 𝜽𝒈= 𝑚𝑟 = 𝑚𝒅Τ𝒗𝟎 Anode
• At low frequencies, the transit time is very small (𝑟 ≪ T) i.e. the
electrons reach instantaneously the anode plate from cathode. 𝑑
Grid
• At high frequencies, the potential between cathode and grid
changes 10 to 100 times during the electron transit as T ≪ 𝑟. 𝑣0

• The grid potential during negative half cycle removes the energy given to the Cathode
electron in positive half cycle. 𝑽𝒔

• Electron may oscillate back and forth in the cathode grid space or return to the
cathode.
T
• To minimize this effect, the distance between the electrodes is to be reduced and high voltage must be applied
but this will increase the inter-electrode capacitance.
 Other Limitations
• Gain BW product: Constant
➢ Higher gain can be achieved for narrower BW
• Skin Depth:

1
𝛿= and 𝑅 = 𝜌𝑙
𝜋𝜇𝜎𝑓 𝐴

➢ Conductor losses- more at microwave frequencies

• Radiation Losses:
➢ Electrode pins start radiating at microwave frequencies
• Dielectric Losses:
➢ More at microwave frequencies
 Dr. ARVIND KUMAR,
Asst. Professor,
Dept. of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur,
INDIA

THANK YOU ! [email protected]

[email protected]
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