Complex

Variables &
Transforms
MATH- 232

Instructor: Dr. Naila Amir

 Some important facts about complex numbers
1. Space of all complex numbers ℂ, is a vector space.
1 𝑧ҧ
2. = 2 , where 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.
𝑧 𝑧

3. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 . (triangular inequality)
4. An 𝑛th degree complex polynomial equation has n complex roots. On the other
hand, an 𝑛th degree real polynomial equation may or may not have 𝑛 real roots.
5. If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 we define 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦 .
6. 𝑒 𝑧 is never zero.
7. 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥 , where 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.
 Some important facts about complex numbers
7. 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 = 1.
8. If 𝛼 is real and positive, we define: 𝛼 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 ln 𝛼 .
9. If 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 = cos 𝑧 + 𝑖 sin 𝑧 , then 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 = cos 𝑧 − 𝑖 sin 𝑧 .

𝑒 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
10. cos 𝑧 = and sin 𝑧 = .
2 2𝑖

𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧
14. cosh 𝑧 = and sinh 𝑧 = .
2 2

15. cos(𝑖𝑧) = cosh 𝑧 and sin(𝑖𝑧) = 𝑖 sinh 𝑧 .

16. cosh(𝑖𝑧) = cos 𝑧 and sinh(𝑖𝑧) = 𝑖 sin 𝑧 .
Complex numbers
▪ Complex Numbers and Their Properties
▪ Complex Plane
▪ Polar Form of Complex Numbers
▪ Powers of Complex Numbers
▪ Roots of Complex Numbers
▪ Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
▪ Applications
Set of points in
Complex Plane
 Complex Numbers
Book: A First Course in Complex Analysis with Applications by
Dennis G. Zill and Patrick D. Shanahan.

• Chapter: 1

• Sections: 1.5
 Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
▪ 𝑧 = 1 is an equation of a unit circle centered at origin.

▪ 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 𝜌; 𝜌 > 0 represents a circle with radius 𝜌 and center at 𝑧0 .

For example: 𝑧 − 1 + 3𝑖 = 5 represents a circle of radius
5 and center at the point 𝑧0 = 1 − 3𝑖.
 Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
▪ The set of points defined by 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ≤ 𝜌 is a closed disk of radius 𝜌 centered at 𝑧0
ഥ𝜌 𝑧0 = 𝑧: 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ≤ 𝜌 . The points 𝑧 that satisfy the
and is expressed as: ℬ
inequality 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ≤ 𝜌 can be either on the circle 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 𝜌 or within the circle.
▪ The set of points defined by 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝜌 represents an open circular disk and is
called a neighborhood of 𝑧0 , or, more precisely, a 𝜌 − neighborhood of 𝑧0 and is
expressed as: ℬ𝜌 𝑧0 = 𝑧: 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝜌 . A 𝜌 − neighborhood of 𝑧0 consists of all
points 𝑧 lying inside but not on a circle centered at 𝑧0 and a specified radius 𝜌 > 0.

▪ Occasionally, we need to use a 𝜌 − neighborhood of 𝑧0 that excludes 𝑧0 . Such a

neighborhood is defined by the inequality 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝜌 and is called a deleted
neighborhood of 𝑧0 (punctured open disk) and is expressed by:
ℬ𝜌 𝑧0 \ 𝑧0 = 𝑧: 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝜌
 Example
▪ ℬ1 0 = 𝑧: 𝑧 < 1 defines a neighborhood of
the origin, whereas ℬ1 0 \ 0 = 𝑧: 0 < 𝑧 < 1
defines a deleted neighborhood of the origin.

7
ഥ
▪ ℬ7 −1 − 𝑖 2 = 𝑧: |𝑧 − −1 − 𝑖 2 | ≤
8 8
represents closed neighborhood of −1 − 𝑖 2.

1
▪ The inequality 0 < |𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖 3 | ≤ defines
2
the following set of points:
1
ഥ1 2 + 𝑖 3 \ 2 + 𝑖 3 = 𝑧: 0 < 𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖 3
ℬ ≤ .
2 2
 Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
▪ The set of points 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 such that 𝑦 > 0 defines the upper half-plane, 𝑦 < 0
the lower half-plane, 𝑥 > 0 the right half-plane and 𝑥 < 0 the left half-plane.

Re(𝑧) > 0 the right half-plane

 Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
▪ A point 𝑧0 is said to be an interior point of a set 𝑆 ⊂ ℂ if there exists some
neighborhood of 𝑧0 that lies entirely within 𝑆, i.e., the neighborhood of 𝑧0
contains only points of 𝑆.

▪ If every neighborhood of a point 𝑧0 of a set 𝑆 contains at least one point of 𝑆

and at least one point not in 𝑆, then 𝑧0 is said to be a boundary point of S.

▪ A point 𝑧 that is neither an interior point nor a boundary point of a set 𝑆 is

said to be an exterior point of 𝑆; in other words, 𝑧0 is an exterior point of a
set 𝑆 if there exists some neighborhood of 𝑧0 that contains no points of 𝑆.

▪ The collection of boundary points of a set 𝑆 is called the boundary of 𝑆.

 Sets of Points in the Complex Plane

We will use the following notation:

▪ Int 𝑆 = 𝑧: 𝑧 is an interior point of 𝑆

▪ Ext 𝑆 = 𝑧: 𝑧 is an exterior point of 𝑆

▪ 𝜕𝑆 = 𝑧: 𝑧 is a boundary point of 𝑆
Interior, boundary, and exterior of
set 𝑆.
 Example
Let 𝑆1 = ℬ1 0 = 𝑧: 𝑧 < 1 . For 𝑆1 we have:

▪ Int 𝑆1 = ℬ1 0

▪ Ext 𝑆1 = 𝑧: 𝑧 > 1

▪ 𝜕𝑆1 = 𝑧: 𝑧 = 1
 Example
7
ഥ7 −1 − 𝑖 2 = 𝑧: |𝑧 − −1 − 𝑖 2 | ≤
Let 𝑆2 = ℬ . For 𝑆2 we have:
8 8

▪ Int 𝑆1 = ℬ7 −1 − 𝑖 2
8

7
▪ Ext 𝑆1 = 𝑧: 𝑧 − −1 − 𝑖 2 >
8

7
▪ 𝜕𝑆1 = 𝑧: 𝑧 − −1 − 𝑖 2 =
8
 Example
1
ഥ1 2 + 𝑖 3 \ 2 + 𝑖 3 = 𝑧: 0 < 𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖 3
Let 𝑆3 = ℬ ≤ . For 𝑆3 we have:
2 2

▪ Int 𝑆1 = ℬ1 2 + 𝑖 3
2

1
▪ Ext 𝑆1 = 𝑧: 𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖 3 >
2

1
▪ 𝜕𝑆1 = 𝑧: 𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖 3 = ∪ 2+𝑖 3
2
 Example
▪ For the set of points defined by Re(𝑧) ≥ 1, the points on the vertical line
𝑥 = 1 are boundary points.

▪ The points that lie on the circle |𝑧 − 𝑖| = 2 are boundary points for the disk
|𝑧 − 𝑖| ≤ 2 as well as for the neighborhood |𝑧 − 𝑖| < 2 of 𝑧 = 𝑖. The
circle |𝑧 − 𝑖| = 2 is the boundary for both the disk |𝑧 − 𝑖| ≤ 2 and the
neighborhood |𝑧 − 𝑖| < 2 of 𝑧 = 𝑖.
 Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
▪ If every point 𝑧 of a set 𝑆 is an interior point, then 𝑆 is said to be an open set.
Thus, 𝑆 is open if for every 𝑧 ∈ 𝑆, there exists 𝜌 > 0 such that ℬ𝜌 𝑧0 ⊂ 𝑆, i.e.,
Int 𝑆 = 𝑆. A set is open if it contains none of its boundary points. For example:
𝑧 < 1.

▪ A set 𝑆 is closed if it contains all of its boundary points. i.e., 𝜕𝑆 ⊆ 𝑆. For example:
𝑧 ≤ 1.

▪ The set of all complex numbers ℂ is both open and closed since it has no
boundary points. However, the punctured disk 0 < 𝑧 ≤ 1 is neither open nor
closed.
Example (Open Sets)
 Example
• The inequality Re(𝑧) > 1 defines a right half-
plane, which is an open set. All complex numbers
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 for which 𝑥 > 1 are in this set. If we
choose, for example, 𝑧0 = 1.1 + 2𝑖, then a
neighborhood of 𝑧0 lying entirely in the set is
defined by |𝑧 − (1.1 + 2𝑖)| < 0.05. Open set with magnified view of point
near 𝑥 = 1

• On the other hand, the set 𝑆 of points in the

complex plane defined by Re(𝑧) ≥ 1 is not open
because every neighborhood of a point lying on
the line 𝑥 = 1 must contain points in 𝑆 and
points not in 𝑆.

Set S not open

 Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
The set 𝑆1 of points satisfying the inequality 𝜌1 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | lie exterior to the circle of
radius 𝜌1 centered at 𝑧0 , whereas the set 𝑆2 of points satisfying |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝜌2 lie
interior to the circle of radius 𝜌2 centered at 𝑧0 . Thus, if 0 < 𝜌1 < 𝜌2 , the set of
points satisfying the inequality:

𝜌1 < 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝜌2 , I

is the intersection of the sets 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 . This intersection is

an open circular ring centered at 𝑧0 . The set defined by (I) is
called an open circular annulus. If 𝜌1 = 0, we obtain a deleted neighborhood of 𝑧0 .
 Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
▪ If any pair of points 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 in a set 𝑆 can be
connected by a polygonal line that consists of a finite
number of line segments joined end to end that lies
entirely in the set, then the set 𝑆 is said to be
connected.

▪ A neighborhood of a point 𝑧0 is a connected set.

▪ A nonempty open set that is connected is called a

domain.

▪ Thus, an open disk and an open annulus are domains. Connected set
 Example
The open set |𝑧| < 1 is connected. The annulus 1 < |𝑧| < 2 is, open and it is
also connected.
 Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
▪ A domain together with some, none, or all of its boundary points
is referred to as a region. In other words, a set whose interior is a
domain is called a region. Since an open set does not contain any
boundary points, it is automatically a region.
▪ A region that contains all its boundary points is said to be closed
region.
▪ The disk defined by |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | ≤ 𝜌 is an example of a closed region Annular Region
and is referred to as a closed disk.
▪ A neighborhood of a point 𝑧0 defined by |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝜌 is an open set or an open
region and is said to be an open disk.
▪ If the center 𝑧0 is deleted from either a closed disk or an open disk, the regions
defined by 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | ≤ 𝜌 or 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝜌 are called punctured disks.
 Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
▪ A set 𝑆 in the complex plane is bounded if there exists
a real number 𝑅 > 0 such that |𝑧| < 𝑅 for every 𝑧 in 𝑆
and is expressed as:
𝑆 ⊂ ℬ𝑅 0 = 𝑧 ∈ ℂ: 𝑧 < 𝑅
That is, a set 𝑆 is bounded every point of 𝑆 lies inside
some circle |𝑧| = 𝑅.

▪ A set is unbounded if it is not bounded.

▪ Both of the sets |𝑧| < 1 and |𝑧| ≤ 1 are bounded

regions, and the half plane Re( 𝑧) ≥ 0 is unbounded. The set 𝑆 is bounded since some neighborhood
of the origin encloses S entirely.
 Practice Questions
Book: A First Course in Complex Analysis with Applications by Dennis G.
Zill and Patrick D. Shanahan.
Chapter: 1

Exercise: 1.5
Q # 1 – 24, 27 – 28, 31 – 32.