WEEK 3 OBE- [CO1- PO2]

Topic 2.2: cement

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 COURSE OUTCOMES & PROGRAM OUTCOMES
CONTENTS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

TYPES OF CEMENT

MANUFACTURER OF CEMENT (O.P.C)

FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

(HYDRATION PROCESS)

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 Course Outcomes

CO1 : Predict basic engineering material problems based on its

performance in civil engineering application. (C5)

CO2 : Demonstrate appropriate techniques and modern engineering

tools to civil engineering material problems. (P5)

CO3 : Perform knowledge and understanding of well-established

materials affectively. (A5)

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ECS256 CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
 PROGRAMME Outcomes
PO Programme Outcome Description
PO2 Identify and analyse well-defined engineering problems
reaching substantiated conclusions using codified methods of
analysis specific to their field of activity.

PO5 Apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern

engineering and IT tools to well-defined engineering problems,
with an awareness of the limitations.

PO11 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of engineering

management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as
a member or leader in a technical team and to manage projects
in multidisciplinary environments

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ECS256 CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
 Learning Outcomes
Understand & explain classification, properties &
advantages/disadvantages of concrete.

Identify types, manufacturing, factor affecting the

properties of cement and also hydration process.

Identify types and the properties of cement.

Understand & explain the manufacture process of OPC

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 INTRODUCTION Cement

What is Cement?
 A powdery substance made with calcined lime and clay. It
is mixed with water to form mortar or mixed with sand,
gravel, and water to make concrete.

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 INTRODUCTION
• A mixture of cement and sand when mixed with water to
form paste is known as cement mortar, whereas a
mixture of cement, sand, gravel or crushed stone and
water is called concrete.

• The function of cement is:

– To bind the sand and coarse aggregate together.
– To fill the void in between sand and course
aggregates particles to form a compact mass.

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 INTRODUCTION Cement

CEMENT + WATER + AGGREGATE (COURSE & FINE) CONCRETE

CEMENT + WATER MORTAR

CEMENT + WATER + SAND CEMENT MORTAR

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 TYPES OF CEMENT
 Cement can be classified into two categories:
Hydraulic cement
High alumina cement
1.HYDRAULIC CEMENT
Is the cement that would set and hardened under
water (CURING PROCESS) by virtue of a chemical
reaction between the constituent compounds of
cement and water.
Hydraulic cement consists mainly of silicates and
aluminates of lime (C2S, C3S, C3A , and C4AF)
They may be classified as:
a) Natural cement
b) Portland cement
c) Aluminous cement
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 A) NATURAL CEMENT

• Natural cements are powders obtained from certain natural rocks

(clayey lime stone type) which are quarried, crushed and processed.

• Hydraulic cements results if enough heat is applied to dry off

carbonic acid gases.

• Brown in color and sets slowly or quickly when mixed with water,
depending on the amount of clay in the limestone.

• Has low strength and now not used for concrete work because of
the strength and other physical property are varies greatly .

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 B) PORTLAND CEMENT (PC)
• Portland cement are made by burning together calcareous
(limestone) and argillaceous materials (clay) or other chemically
similar suitable materials in a large rotary kiln at 1400⁰C to form
clinker.
• This clinker is ground to a fine powder with a small proportion of
gypsum (calcium sulphate) which regulates the rate of setting
when the cement is mixed with water.
• Commonly used in construction work.

Calcareous + argillaceous ROTARARY KILN CLINKER

(limestone) (Clay)
1400⁰C
Fine powder
 C) ALUMINOUS CEMENT

• In aluminous cements the chief ingredient are calcareous

(clay, shale) and aluminous materials (limestone or chalk
and bauxite)
• These are heated to a temperature of 1400⁰C and then the
whole mass is grinded to powder form.

Calcareous + aluminous materials ROTARARY

clinker
KILN
(clay, shale) (limestone or chalk and
bauxite)
powder form grinder

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 2.HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT

• High alumina cement is quite different both in

composition and properties from Portland Cement (PC).
• Has slow-setting but rapid-hardening, thus produces
very high early strength.
• About 80% of the ultimate strength is developed at the
age of 24 hours.
• More workable than PC.
• Initial setting time of 4 hours.
• Final setting time about 5 hours.
• More resistant than PC – to the action of sulphates,
therefore suitable for under water sea application.
• More expensive than PC
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 Raw Material
(limestone/chalk + bauxite)

Crushed into lumps not exceeding 100 mm

Heated at 1600⁰C to form clinker

Clinker is ground to form cement paste

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 PORTLAND CEMENT

 There is a variety of cements in the market and each type

is used under certain conditions due to its special
properties.

 Portland cement is commonly used cement.

 The name Portland cement was given due to yellowish-

gray color and quality of set cement which resembled
stone quarried on the Isle of Portland, England.

 Over the years, several types of Portland cement have

been developed: ordinary, rapid hardening, sulphate
resisting and white.

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 PORTLAND CEMENT (CONT.)

• As their name simply, they are produced to provide

special properties and effects which are value in
appropriate applications.

• They are containing the same active compound -

only the proportion of each is different.

• The main compounds in Portland cements are given

in Table 1.

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 Table 1: Main chemical compound of Portland Cement

Name of Chemical Composition Usual Reaction

Compound Abbreviation

Tricalsium 3CaO.SiO2 C3S Quick Reaction

Silicate
Dicalsium 2CaO.SiO2 C2S Slow Reaction
Silicate
Tricalsium 3CaO.A2O3 C3A Very Quick
Aluminate Reaction

TerraCalsium 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF Not very

Aluminoferrite important

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 Contribution of compound composition to
Strength compressive strength development

Early strength
development

Age
C3S and C3A C2S

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 TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

• Portland cement are divided into 8 types:

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
2. Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (RHPC)
3. White & Colored Portland Cement
4. Low Heat Portland Cement
5. Portland – Blast furnace Cement
6. Sulphate – Resistance Portland Cement (SRPC)
7. High Strength Portland Cement
8. Masonry Cement

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 1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is the most common

cement used in general concrete construction when
there is no exposure to sulphates in the soil or ground
water.

 Has a medium rate of hardening.

 Suitable for most type of work.

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EFFECT OF SULFATE ATTACK

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 2. Rapid-Hardening Portland Cement (RHPC)

• More finely ground – increase the rate of hydration at early

ages.
• Increase the rate of hardening.
• Early hydration rate very high, accelerate hardening – rapid
gain of early strength.
• Also useful when concreting in the cold weather.
• High early strength is achieved by increasing the C3S and
C3A content of the cement & finer grinding.
• The strength of 7 days with RHPC= 28 days with concrete
made with OPC. (7days OPC = 28 days RHPC)
• High heat evolution, RHPC is not suitable for large masses.
• Used for early removal of formwork.

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Formwork

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 3. White & Colored Portland Cement

• Generally used for decorative work.

• White cement- made by using china clay.
• Coloured cement- by mixing a pigment with Portland
Cement.
• The strength is lower than OPC.
• Low content of soluble alkali that prevents staining.

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 4. Low Heat Portland Cement (LHPC)

• Hardens & evolves heat more slowly than OPC.

• Obtained by increasing the proportion of C2S & reducing
C3S and C3A.
• Slow development of strength than OPC but same
ultimate strength.
• Initial setting is greater than OPC.
• Developed for mass-concrete application. If OPC
cement is used in large masses that cannot lose heat by
radiation, it liberates enough heat during hydration to
raise the temp. (as much 50◦F or 60◦F)  develop
shrinkage cracks

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SHRINKAGE CRACKS

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5. Portland- Blastfurnace Cement (PBFC)

• Made by grinding a mixture of OPC clinker with

selected granulated blastfurnace slag. (proportion of
slag is limited by the BS to <65% of the finished
cement

• Properties are very similar to OPC but hydrates

slower than OPC- evolve less heat & hardens more
slowly than OPC.

• Resistance to sulphate is often considered to be

intermediate between that of SRPC.

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5. Portland- Blastfurnace Cement (PBFC)

Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag

• It is obtained by a by-product of iron and

steel-making from a blast furnace in water or
steam,

• It is to produce a product that is then dried

and ground into a fine powder.

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 Benefits of using PBFC:

a) Low heat of hydration

• Cement, with lower heat of hydration compared to OPC is suitable for

mass concreting works.

• BS 8110 Part 1 Clause 6.2 (b) recommended " the use of material with a
lower release of heat of hydration to be considered from mass
concreting works"

b) Resistance to chloride attack

• Due to tropical climate, chloride attack is a severe problem for concrete
construction in the marine environment.

• Chloride attack as measured by chloride diffusion into concrete is

reduced by using Portland Blast-furnace Cement

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 EFFECT OF CHLORIDE ATTACK

WITH CHLORIDE ATTACK WITHOUT CHLORIDE ATTACK

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c) Resistance to sulphate attack

• Naturally occurring sulphates of sodium, potassium, calcium or magnesium

which can attack concrete are sometimes found in sea or dissolved in ground
water adjacent to concrete structures.

• When evaporation takes place from an exposed surface, the sulphates may
accumulate at that surface, thus increasing their concentration and potential for
causing deterioration.
d) Resistance to alkali silica reaction (ASR)

• Alkali Silica Reaction which causes concrete to crack and disintegrate is caused
by deleterious aggregates (damage aggregate) which react with the Sodium
Equivalent in cement.

• PBFC is effective in reducing the risk of alkali silica attack caused by reactive
aggregates

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 6. Sulphate Resistant Portland Cement (SRPC)

 Slightly darker in colour than OPC (high C4AF).

 For resistant against sulphate in soils with high sulphate
content.
 The composition according to BS4027:1980.
 Lower C3A content (3.5%)- to minimise chemical
combination with sulphates in solution.
 Heat development is lower but the cost is higher due to
special composition of the raw materials.

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 Uses of SRPC

• Where concrete structures are exposed to sea water or ground

water and soil containing soluble sulphates, SRPC should be used
to ensure long-term protection from sulphates attack.

• SRPC highly recommended for:

Port facilities, e.g. Underground structure

jetties and other marine
concrete structures. canals and culverts.

Structures in swampy
Coastal protective
areas, e.g. footings,
structures, e.g. sea-
ground beams, piles,
walls, breakwater
etc.

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 Advantages of SRPC

• High resistance to sulphates attack by sea water and

soils containing soluble sulphates.
• Lower susceptibility to dissolution and leaching.
• Lower heat of hydration and hence less risk of thermal
shrinkage.
• Greater resistance to cracking.
• Improve durability in aggressive soil conditions.

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EFFECT OF ALKALI SILICA REACTION ON CONCRETE

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 7. High Strength Portland Cement

• Same materials as OPC.

• Higher strength – achieved by increasing C3A content & finer

grinding of the clinker.

• Initial and final setting times = OPC.

• At higher water cement ratios, the high strength concrete has about
80% higher strength and at lower water cement ratios 40% higher
than OPC.

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 8) Masonry Cement

 Use mainly for plastering of brick wall.

 The cement mortar in plastic condition for quite sometime
before hardened.
 Consist of OPC + fine inert admixture + plasticizing agent.
 It is a homogeneous blend of controlled amounts of Portland
Cement, plasticizing material and air entraining agent, inter-
ground to a high fineness to give consistent quality.

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 8) Masonry Cement
Application Its economics :
• Masonry Cement is an extremely • Unlike conventional mortar which
versatile material. It is recommended is a mixture of 4 ingredients, i.e.
highly for the following: Portland Cement, lime, sand and
-Bedding and pointing brickwork and water, masonry mortar requires
blockwork. only 3 ingredients, i.e. masonry
-Interior and exterior plastering cement, sand and water.
-Wall finishes due to its low • This means that masonry cement
susceptibility to efflorescence. is:
 Savings in labor cost.
 Less wastage.
 Minimum storage
requirement.

Efflorescene

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 8) Masonry Cement

Advantages

• Masonry cement– the easy, efficient, economical and

environment friendly way of mixing mortar. Its excellent
water retaining property prevents premature loss of
water, therefore ensuring:
• Strong bonding
• Low drying shrinkage
• Better weather resistance
• Good workability
• Easier handling
• Smoother finish

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Table 3.0 Minimum Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes at 3
different ages (specified by BS 4550 for Portland Cement)

Type of Portland Compressive Strength

Cement (N/mm2)
3 days 7 days 28 days
i) OPC 13 - 29

ii) RHPC 18 - 33

iii) PBC 8 14 22

iii) LHPC 5 - 19

iv) LHPBC 3 7 14
v) SRPC 10 - 27
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HOW CEMENT IS
MADE?????????

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 MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT

 Made by heating a finely divided mixture of argillaceous

(clay or shale) and calcareous materials (chalk or
limestone) in a kiln to a high temperature (1500°C) such
that chemical combination occurs.
 5% gypsum is added to the resulting clinker to prevent
‘flash’ setting.(rate of setting when cement is add to
water).
 The clinker is grounded into powder.

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 MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT (cont.)
 Active constituents in all Portland Cement are

Calcium Silicate
derived from
Limestone or Chalk Clay or Shale

(CaCO3, CaO) Contain Iron (Fe2O3) &

Aluminium (Al2O3)

 Basically, have 2 process of manufacture of cement : dry

& wet process.
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 MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT (cont.)

The process of manufacture of cement consists of:

i. Grinding the raw materials (treatment of raw
material).
ii. Mixing them intimately in certain proportions.
iii. Burning in large-rotary kiln at a temperature
(1300° - 1400°C) when the materials are partially
fused into balls – called clinker.
iv. The clinker is cooled and ground to a fine
powder with sum gypsum added.

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 The process of manufacture of
cement consists of:

Burning in large- The clinker

Grinding the rotary kiln at a
raw Mixing them is cooled
temperature (1300° - and ground
materials intimately in 1400°C) when the
(treatment of certain materials are to a fine
raw proportions. partially fused into powder with
material). balls – called sum gypsum
clinker. added.

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The process of manufacture of cement

a) RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION

Source: from Portland Cement Association

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b) RAW MATERIAL PROPORTIONING

Source: from Portland Cement Association

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c) BURNING PROCESS & GYPSUM ADDED

Source: from Portland Cement Association

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 FACTOR AFFECTING THE PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

a) Chemical composition
b) Fineness
i) Hydration of cement
ii) Setting time
iii) Soundness
iv) Less on ignition

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 FACTOR AFFECTING THE PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

a) Chemical composition
 Raw materials used in the manufacture of PC consist mainly of lime,
silica, alumina & iron oxide.
 The four main compound change in % of them will produce different
types of cement.

b) Fineness
 Is a measure of the sizes of particles of cement & expressed in term
of specific surface of cement.
 The more the fine the cement is ground, the greater will be its
specific surface.
 More fineness of cement, more rate of hydration & rapid
development of strength.

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 FACTOR AFFECTING THE PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

 The fineness is most important factor which determine

the properties of cement :-

 Finer grinding increases the speed with which the

various constituents reacts with water but does not
alter their coherent properties.
 Fineness of grinding is of some importance in relation
on the workability of concrete mixes.
 Greater fineness increases the cohesiveness of a
concrete mix.
 Fineness increases the chance of shrinkage cracking
(resulted from both cooling & drying of concrete)

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 FACTOR AFFECTING THE PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

 The rate of hydration depend on the fineness of the cement

particles. For rapid development of strength, high fineness
(finer material) is necessary.
 The bigger the surface area, the more surface to react and
the faster the rate.
 The finer the size of cement grain, the bigger the specific
surface area.

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 FACTOR AFFECTING THE PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

 Determination of fineness of cement can be carried out

by:
i) Sieve Analysis through a 90µm sieve.
ii) Special surface area :
- Air permeability method.
- Wagner's turbidimeter method

Sieve Analysis test

 Table 2.0 Fineness of Different Portland Cement
Cement Type Specific Surface Area
Ordinary Portland Cement 225m2/kg
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement 325 m2/kg
Low Heat Portland Cement 320 m2/kg

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 1. HYDRATION OF CEMENT

 When water is added to cement, each of the compound

undergoes hydration and contributes to the final concrete
product.
 Only the Calsium Silicate contribute to strength.
 Tricalcium silicate is responsible for most of the early
strength (first 7 days).
 Dicalcium silicate, which reacts more slowly, contributes only
to the strength at later times.

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 1. HYDRATION OF CEMENT (CONT.)

• Heat is liberated as cement set & hardened by reacting

with water.
• It is the rate in which heat is released governed the
strength of concrete.
• The rate of heat >>> depends on the composition of
cement.
• Fineness >>> affect the rate of hydration & heat but total
amount of heat liberated in unaffected by fineness.

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 1. HYDRATION OF CEMENT (CONT.)

Figure: Schematic illustration of the pores in calcium silicate through different stages
of hydration.
(a) that hydration has not yet occurred and the pores (empty
spaces between grains) are filled with water.
(b)represents the beginning of hydration.
(c) the hydration continues. Although empty spaces still exist,
they are filled with water and calcium hydroxide solution.
(d)shows nearly hardened cement paste. --> Calcium silicate
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 1. HYDRATION OF CEMENT (CONT.)

There are 4 stages of hydration process;

Stage I - A few minutes after mix with water.
Stage II – Dormant stage (no activity observed) 8 – 12h
Stage III & IV – hydration of C3S, C3A and C2S occurred.
Stage V – hardening process occurred.

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 2. SETTING TIME

 Is the time from the addition of water to the initial & final setting stage.
 It also refers to the changes of the cement paste from fluid to rigid.
 It involves chemical reaction between cement & water, hydration
resolves in the formation of gel around each cement particles &
temperature change.

Table 4.0 Setting Time for Different Portland Cement

Type of Portland Cement Setting Time

Initial setting time, Final setting time,
minutes (min) minutes (max)
i) OPC 30 600
ii) RHPC 30 600
iii) LHPC 60 600

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Setting Time Test

Vicat Apparatus
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 The means of controlling the rate at which cement stiffened
is by inter grinding a measured quantities of gypsum.

INITIAL SETTING TIME

a) the time of addition of water to cement to the beginning of the

noticeable stiffening in the cement paste.
b) correspond to the rapid rise in temperature.
c) normally about 45-175 minutes.

FINAL SETTING TIME

a) time of beginning of addition of water to cement to completion of setting

i.e. cement paste becomes stiff.
b) Correspond to the peak temp. in the cement paste
c) Stiffening increases as the gel increases and the stage at which this is
complete, the final hardening process begins
d) Normally 3-10 hrs.
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 HARDENING

a) refer to the gain of the strength of the cement paste. (during setting
time, cement gained very little strength)
b) Setting time can be determined with the Vicat Apparatus (detailed are
explained in BS 4550).

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 3. SOUNDNESS (CHANGE IN CEMENT VOLUME)

o unsound cement --> excessive change in volume, particularly expansion of

cement paste after setting.
o unsoundness due to presence of free lime & magnesia in cement.
o Free lime hydrates very slowly because it is covered by thin film of cement
(prevents direct contact between lime and water).
o After setting of cement, the moisture penetrates into the free lime resulting
in its hydration.
o Since slaked lime occupies a larger volume, the expansion takes place
resulting in severe cracking.
o The unsoundness may be reduced by :-
– Limiting the MgO content to less than 0.5%
– Fine grinding
– Allowing the cement to aerate for several days
– Proper mixing

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 W2
IV) LOSS ON IGNITION

 Test carried out to determine the loss of weight when the sample is
heated to 900° – 1000°C.
 Loss of weight due to evaporation of moisture & CO2 which are present in
combination with free lime or magnesia.
 The presence of moisture causes prehydration of cement.
 Loss of weight  is a measure of the freshness of cement.
 Inert substances  hydroxide & carbonates of lime & magnesium have
no cementing property
 < loss of ignition, < quantity of inert substances, better the cement
 The loss on ignition is determined by heating 1g of cement sample in a
platinum crucible at a temp of 900ºC - 1000ºC for min 15 minutes.
 Normally the loss will be around 2%.
 Max allowable = 4%

ECS256 CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS 65

 Definition and Terms

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Differences in chemical composition, particularly with supplementary

cementitious materials that could be less uniform than Portland
cement, could affect early and ultimate strengths, heat released,
setting time, and resistance to deleterious materials.

FINENESS

The fineness of the cement or supplementary cementitious materials

affects heat release and rate of hydration. Finer materials react faster,
with a corresponding increase in early strength development, primarily
during the first 7 days. Fineness also influences workability, since the
finer the material, the greater the surface area and frictional resistance
of the plastic concrete.

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 Definition and Terms (CONT.)

SOUNDNESS

Refers to the ability of the cement paste to retain its volume after
setting, and is related to the presence of excessive amounts of free
lime or magnesia in the cement or supplementary cementations
material.

SETTING TIME

The setting time for the cement paste is an indication of the rate at
which hydration reactions are occurring and strength is developing and
can be used as an indicator as to whether or not the paste is
undergoing normal hydration reactions.

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 Definition and Terms (CONT.)

FALSE SET

False set or early stiffening of the cement paste is indicated by a

significant loss of plasticity without the evolution of heat shortly after
the concrete is mixed.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Compressive strength is influenced by cement composition and
fineness. Compressive strengths for different cements or cement
blends are established by compressive strength testing of mortar
cubes prepared using a standard graded.

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