Unit 2

Wide Area Wireless Network

Presented By: Punam Bagul

Principle of Cellular Communication
▪ Introduction of Cellular Telephone system
▫ The aim of early mobile radio system was to provide coverage to
a large area with the help of single high power transmitter having
an antenna mounted on a tall tower.
● Cellular concept
○ A single high power transmitter is replaced
By many low power transmitters.

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Cellular Communication Terminologies
● Base Station : A base station serves as a central connection point for a wireless device to

communicate.

● Control Chanel : The radio channel used for transmitting the control signals.

● Forward Channel : The radio channel used for transmitting the information from base station to the
mobile.
● Reverse Channel : The radio channel used for transmitting the information from a mobile to base
station.
● Mobile station : It is a station in the cellular radio service which is used when in motion.
● Hand off - It is process of transferring the connection with a mobile station from one base station to the
other.
● Mobile switching center(MSC or MTSO) : It is the center which is set up for coordinating the routing of
calls.

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Cellular Communication Terminologies
● Transceiver : It is unit containing both transmitter and receiver.
● Roamer : It is a mobile station which operates in a service area other
than the one from where the service has been subscribed.
● Subscriber : It is a user of a mobile communication system who pays
the subscription charges.

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Principle of Cellular Communication
▪ Cell:Small geographical area in which a group of radio channels is
allocated to be used.
▪ Co-Channel Cells : Cells labeled with the same letter use the same
group of channels.
▪ Actual coverage area of cell is known as footprint
▪ N cells which collectively use a complete set of available frequency is
called a cluster.
▪ Frequency reuse factor is the reciprocal of cluster size
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 ▪ N is a function of how much
interference a mobile can tolerate
while maintaining sufficient quality of
communication.
▪ From design point of view, smallest N
is desirable
▫ To maximize capacity
▫ Over a given coverage area

Cluster size,N=7
Frequency reuse factor =1/7 6
Structure of Cellular System

▪ The task of the base stations is to act as an

interface between the mobile phone and the
cellular radio system.

▪ MSC control all the cells and provides the

interface between each cell and PSTN.

▪ Switching Center acts as the interface between the

PSTN ( Public Switched Telephone Network)

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PSTN
Frequency Reuse

▪ In frequency reuse concept, the radio channels

use the same frequency to cover different areas
that are physically separate from each other.

▪ Cells with the same number have the same set of

frequencies

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Frequency Reuse using 7 frequencies allocations

f2 ▪ In frequency reuse concept, the radio channels

use the same frequency to cover different areas
f2 f7 f3 that are physically separate from each other.
f7 f3 f1
f1 f6 f4 ▪ Cells with the same number have the same set of
f6 f4 f5 frequencies.
f5 f2
f7 f3 ▪ Instead of single transmitter of higher power,
f1 many small output power operating at the same
f6 f4 frequencies are used.
f5
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Frequency Reuse using Different cluster size

▪ In fr

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Co-channel interference
Co-channel cells: cells that use the same set of frequencies in a coverage area (Frequency
reuse concept)
• Co-channel interference: The interference between signals from co-channel cells.
To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be physically separated by a
minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to propagation. (When the size of each
cell is the same, and the BSs transmit the same power.)
The co-channel interference ratio depends on:
• The radius of the cell (R)
The distance between centers of the nearest co-channel cells (D).
• Q = D/R

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Frequency Reuse schemes

• Interference is reduced when Q is increased (improved isolation of RF energy

from the co-channel cell).
• Q is related to the cluster size(N) for a hexagonal geometry
Frequency Reuse Factor = 1/N

D = R * (3 * N)½

Q = (3 * N)½

R = Radius of a cell
Where,

N = Number of cells in a given cluster 12

Numericals

Calculate system capacity if cluster size is 7 and per cell number of channels are
72. Calculate total system capacity if 14 such clusters are available.

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Numericals

Given : N = 7, K =72, M = 14

Total capacity of the cellular system( C) = M * K * N

= 14 * 72 * 7
= 7056

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Numericals

Assume a cellular system of 32 cells with a cell radius of 1.6 Km, a total spectrum
allocation that supports 336 traffic channels, and a reuse pattern of 7. Calculate
the total service area covered with this configuration, the number of channels per
cell and a total system capacity. Assume regular hexagonal cellular topology.

⇒ Given : No of cells = 32
R = 1.6 KM
No. of channels : 336
N=7

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Numericals

A) The total service area covered = Area of cell * no. of cells

= (3√3 (R)2)/2 * 32
2
= (3√3 (1.6) )/2 * 32

= 6.65 * 32
= 213 KM2

A) The number of channels per cell :

No. of channels : 336

Cluster Size N = 7
The number of channels per cell : 336 / 7 = 48

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Numericals

C) Total system capacity : Number of channels per cells * Number of cells

= 48 * 32
= 1536 channels

Q. 2 Let the size be reduced to the extent that the same area as covered in
previous question with 128 cells. Find the radius of the new cell and new system
capacity.
⇒ Number of cells : 128

Total service area = 213 km2

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Numericals

A) The radius of the new cell and new system capacity.

⇒ Number of cells : 128

Total service area = 213 km2

Area of new cell = Total Service area / no. of cells
= 213 / 128
= 1.66 km2

Area of new cell = (3√3 (R)2)/2

2
1.66 = (3√3 (R) )/2

R = 0.8 KM

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Numericals

B) New system capacity : Number of channels per cells * Number of cells

= 48 * 128
= 6144 channels

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Numericals

A mobile communication system is allocated RF spectrum of 25 MHz and uses RF

channel bandwidth of 25 MHz and uses RF Channel bandwidth of 25KHz so that a
total number of 1000 voice channels can be supported in the system.
1. If the service area is divided into 20 cells with a frequency reuse factor of 4,
compute the system capacity.
2. The cell size is reduced to the extent that the service area is now covered
with 100 cells. Compute the system capacity while keeping the frequency
reuse factor as 4.
3. Consider the cell size is further reduced so that the same service area is
now covered with 700 cells with the frequency reuse factor of 7. Compute
the system capacity.

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Handoff in Cellular Telecommunications

Handoff refers to the process of transferring ongoing call or data connectivity from
one Base Station to other Base Station.

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Types of Handoff:
1. Hard Handoff

When there is an actual break in the connectivity while switching from one Base Station
to another Base Station.

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Types of Handoff:
2. Soft Handoff

Soft Handoff adopted the ‘make before break’ policy.

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Types of Handoff:
Delayed handoff

● The MTSO always handles the handoff first and the originating calls second. If
no neighboring cells are available after the second handoff level is reached, the
call continues until the signal strength drops below the threshold level then the
call is dropped.

▪ Queued hand off: The MTSO will queue the requests of handoff calls instead of
rejecting them if the new cell sites are busy..

▪ Intersystem Handoff: In Intersystem Handoff, If during an ongoing call a mobile

unit moves from one cellular system to a different cellular system which is
controlled by different MTSO, a handoff procedure which is used to avoid
dropping of call referred as Intersystem Handoff takes place. 24
Intrasystem Handoff:
● In Intrasystem Handoff, if during an ongoing call a mobile unit moves
from one cellular system to an adjacent cellular system which is
controlled by the same MTSO, a handoff procedure which is used to
avoid dropping of call referred to as Intra System Handoff takes place.
Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO)
● In Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO) every mobile station measures the
received power from surrounding base stations and continually reports
the results of these measurements to the serving base station.

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Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular System

As the demand for wireless service increases, the number of channels assigned to cell
becomes insufficient to support required number of users.

At this point, cellular design techniques are needed to provide more channels per unit
coverage area.

There are 3 techniques for improving cell capacity in cellular system, namely:

● Cell Splitting.
● Sectoring.

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Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular System

A) CELL SPLITTING:

● It is process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells, each with its own
base station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter
power.

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Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular System

Sectoring:
●

The technique for decreasing co-channel

interference and thus increasing system capacity
by using directional antennas is called sectoring

● A cell is normally
partitioned into three 1200
sectors or six 60° sectors.

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Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular System

Sectoring:
●

The technique for decreasing co-channel

interference and thus increasing system capacity
by using directional antennas is called sectoring

● A cell is normally
partitioned into three 1200
sectors or six 60° sectors.

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Global System For Mobile (GSM )

● It is standard developed by European Telecommunications standards Institute

to describe the protocols for 2G.

● It is a second generation cellular system.

● GSM is a digital mobile system that uses TDMA for multiple access.
● GSM can support more subscriber in the given spectrum.
● GSM provides SMS services.
● GSM has a Subscriber Identity Module(SIM)(Identification number of subscriber
+ Type of Network + private key).
● It provides the on-the -air privacy

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GSM System Architecture

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GSM System Architecture

● GSM is a larger system which is divided into further 3 subsystems.

● Base Station Subsystem (BSS) : BSS handles traffic and signaling between a mobile
phone and the network switching subsystem.
● Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) : NSS is to core network of GSM. That carried
out call and mobility management functions for mobile phone present in network.

● The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS) : The operations and maintenance

center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the switching system and to the BSC.
a. Administration and commercial operation (subscription, end terminals, charging, and
statistics).
b. Security Management.
c. Network configuration, Operation, and Performance Management.
d. Maintenance Tasks. 32
GSM System Architecture

● MS : = Mobile Equipment(ME) + Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).

These mobile stations are connected to tower and that tower connected with
BTS through TRX. TRX is a transceiver which comprises transmitter and receiver.

▪ Base Transceiver Station (BTS) : It facilitates wireless communication between user

equipment and a network.

▪ Base Station Controller (BSC) : The BSC manages the radio resources for one or more
BTSs. It handles radio channel setup, frequency hopping, and handovers.

▪ Mobile Switching Center (MSC) : MSC stands for. MSC is associated with
communication switching functions such as call setup, call release and routing. Call
tracing, call forwarding all functions are performed at the MSC level.
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GSM System Architecture

Home Location Register (HLR)

The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions.
Subscriber's service profile + location information + activity status.

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that is needed by the
MSC in order to service visiting subscribers.
When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data
about the mobile station from the HLR.

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GSM System Architecture

Authentication Center (AUC)

It stores a copy of the secret key stored in each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication
and ciphering of the radio channel

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile equipment on
the network, where its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) identifies each MS.

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GSM Channel

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Logical Channel

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Traffic Channel

TCH/F : Full rate traffic channel.

TCH/H : Half rate traffic channel.

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Control Channel

BCCH (Broadcast control channel).

BCCH is a point to multipoint channel ( BSS to MS ).

SCH : Synchronization channel for the MS.

FCCH : Frequency correction channel.

CCCH : Common control channel.

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Control Channel

Common Control :

PCH : Paging channel terminating call announcement.

AGCH : Access grant control channel.

RACH : Random access control channel for access requests,

response to call announcement, location update etc.

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Control Channel

DCCH : Dedicated control channel.

SACCH : Slow associated control channel for TCH in-band

signaling for link monitoring.

SDCCH : Standalone dedicated control channel for signaling

exchanges during call setup, registration / location updates.

FACCH : Fast associated control channel for time-critical

signaling over the TCH for handover signalling.
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GPRS Architecture

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GPRS Support Nodes

▪ PCU (Packet Control Unit)

If signal comes to BSC and that signal contains data, then PCU routes to the SGSN.
Interface is used between BSC and PCU is FRI interface.

▪ SSGN( Serving GPRS Support Node)

Authentication of GPRS mobiles

Registration of mobiles in the network

Mobility management

Collecting information for charging for the use of the air interface.

▪ GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node)

It acts as an interface and a router to external networks.
It contains routing information for GPRS mobiles.
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EDGE ( Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evaluation)

It introduces new modulation technique and new channel coding that can be used to
transmit both packet switched and circuit switched voice and data services.

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EDGE ( Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evaluation)

GPRS (GPRS - General Packet Radio EDGE(Enhanced Data Rates for GSM
Service) Evolution.)

2.5G Technology 2.75G Technology

Speed - 64 - 144 Kbps Speed - 384 - 474 kbps

Enhanced version of GSM Enhanced version of GPRS

Modulation Bit rate - 270 kbps Modulation Bit Rate - 810 kbps

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CDMA 2000

● CDMA2000 is a family of technology for 3G mobile cellular communications for

transmission of voice, data and signals.

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CDMA2000 1x Network Elements:

Mobile Station (MS):

Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

Base Station Controller (BSC):

Packet Control Function (PCF):

CN : Packet Data Service Node (PDSN):

RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial In User Service)

Home Agent (HA):

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UMTS Architecture (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System)

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UMTS Architecture (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System)

▪ UE : User Equipments is composed of Mobile Equipment (ME) and USIM.

▫ It is final interface to the user.
▫ It consist of variety of components :
▫ RF circuitry : To reduce Power consumption for signal processing.
▫ Digital circuitry
▫ Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM)
▫ Lower consumption battery.
▪ Radio Network Subsystem (RNS): It comprises two components
▫ RNC ( Radio Network Controller) : It control the base station connected to it. Data encryption
decryption is performed at this point for data privacy.
▫ Node B : This part of UTRAN contains the transmitter and receiver to communicate with UE’s within
cell.

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UMTS Architecture (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System)

▪ 3G UMTS Core Network

▫ Circuit switched elements:
▫ Packet switched elements:

Advantages : Fast Internet

Video Calling capabilities

Disadvantages : Drains Battery

More costlier than GSM.

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UMTS 3G Security

In order to achieve the authentication features, AKA (UMTS Authentication and Key
Agreement) security mechanism used.

AKA is based on challenge/response authentication protocol.

1. Requests of Authentication Vectors ( AVs)

2. Calculation of Authentication Vectors(AVs)
3. Transmission of Authentication Vectors(AVs)
4. Challenge to MS
5. Verification of AVs and Generation of RES
6. Reply by MS via RES
7. Verification of RES

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LTE ARCHITECTURE (Long Term Evolution)

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LTE ARCHITECTURE (Long Term Evolution)

The high-level network architecture of LTE is comprised of following three main components:

● The User Equipment (UE).

● The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN).
● The Evolved Packet Core (EPC).

● The User Equipment (UE) :

a. Mobile Termination (MT) : This handles all the communication functions.
b. Terminal Equipment (TE) : This terminates the data streams.
c. Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC) : This is also known as the SIM card for LTE
equipments. It runs an application known as the Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM).

● eNodeB : It provides the radio interface to UE.

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LTE ARCHITECTURE (Long Term Evolution)

● MME (Mobility Management Entity ) : It is responsible for authenticating the UE. It selects the suitable
SGW and PGW that should serve this UE.

● SGW (Serving Gateway) : It forwards user data between eNode and PGW.
● PWG (PDN Gateway ) : It connects PDN Network and LTE.
● HSS (Home Subscriber Server) : It stores the subscriber information of mobile user.
● PDN (Public Data Network)
● Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) : It is responsible for policy control
decision-making, as well as for controlling the flow-based charging functionalities in the Policy Control
Enforcement Function (PCEF), which resides in the P-GW.

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