Chapter one ...........................................................................

Principles of Radar

1-1 Introduction:
The term RADAR is an acronym made up of the words RAdio Detection And Ranging. The term
is used to refer to electronic equipment that detect the presence, direction, height, and distance of
objects by using reflected electromagnetic (EM) energy. This energy travels through space in a
straight line, at a constant speed, and will vary only slightly because of atmospheric and weather
conditions(1).

EM energy of the frequency used for radar is unaffected by darkness and also penetrates weather
to some degree, depending on frequency. It permits radar systems to determine the positions of
ships, planes, and land masses that are invisible to the naked eye because of distance, darkness, or
weather.

Figure 1-1 shows the operating principle of primary radar. The radar antenna illuminates the target
with a microwave (MW) signal, which is then reflected and picked up by a receiving device. The
electrical signal picked up by the receiving antenna is called echo (or return). The radar signal is
generated by a powerful transmitter and received by a highly sensitive receiver.

Figure 1-1: Block diagram of a primary radar with the signal flow

(1)
Electromagnetic energy travels through air at approximately the speed of light,

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

The general principles of radar have been known for a long time, but many electronics
discoveries were necessary before a useful radar system could be developed. World
War-II provide a strong incentive to develop practical radar, and early versions were in
use soon after the war began. Radar technology has improved in the years since the war.
In recent years, radar systems become smaller, more efficient, and better than those early
versions.

1-2 Historical Overview:

Radar was secretly developed by several nations in the period before and during
World War- II. The term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an
acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging. The early radar device was used during
World War-II on the beach in Normandy. Figure 1-2 shows the photograph for this radar
taken on June 22, 1944.

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Figure 1- 2: Photograph for early radar device taken on June 22, 1944

The modern uses of radar are highly diverse, including air and terrestrial traffic control, radar
astronomy, air-defense systems, antimissile systems, marine radars to locate landmarks and other
ships, aircraft anti-collision systems, ocean surveillance systems, outer space surveillance and
rendezvous systems, meteorological precipitation monitoring, altimetry and flight control systems,
guided missile target locating systems, ground-penetrating radar for geological observations, and
range-controlled radar for public health surveillance. High tech radar systems are associated with
digital signal processing, machine learning and are capable of extracting useful information from
very high noise levels.
Other systems similar to radar make use of other parts of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. One
example is "lidar"1, which uses ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared light from lasers rather than
radio waves.

1-3 Radar Bands of Frequencies:

Conventionally, radars are usually operated at frequencies between 220 MHz and 35 GHz, a spread
of more than 7 octaves2. However, they can also be operated at other frequencies outside this range.
For example, sky wave HF over-the-horizon (OTH) radars might operate at frequencies as low as
4 to 5 MHz and ground wave F radars as low as 2 MHz. Millimeter wave radars may operate at 94
GHz. Laser radars have been known to operate at even higher frequencies. Figure 1-3 shows some
radars (antennas of radars) and its frequency bands.

1
What is the meaning of the following acronyms; Radar, Lidar, and Sonar? Radar: ra(dio) d(etection)
a(nd) r(anging), Lidar: li(ght) d(etection) a(nd) r(anging), and Sonar: so(und) na(vigation) (and)
r(anging).
2
The frequency ratio expressed in octaves is the base-2 logarithm (Binary logarithm) of the ratio

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

1-3-1 A- and B- Bands (HF- and VHF- Radar)

These radar bands below 300 MHz (Figure 1-3) have a long historically tradition because these
frequencies represented the frontier of radio technology at the time during the World War-II.
Today these frequencies are used for early warning radars and so called Over-The-Horizon (OTH)
Radars. Using these lower frequencies, it is easier to obtain high-power transmitters. The
attenuation of the electromagnetic (EM) waves is lower than using higher frequencies. On the
other hand, the accuracy is limited, because a lower frequency requires antennas with very large
physical size which determines angle accuracy and angle resolution. These frequency bands are
used by other communications and also broadcasting services, therefore the bandwidth of the
radar is limited. These frequency bands are currently experiencing a comeback, while the actually
used stealth technologies don't have the desired effect at extremely low frequencies.

1-3-2 C- Band (UHF- Radar)

There are some specialized radar sets developed for this frequency band (300 MHz to1 GHz)
(Figure 1-3). It is a good frequency for the operation of radars for the detection and tracking of
satellites and ballistic missiles over a long range. These radars operate for early warning and target
acquisition like the surveillance radar for the Medium Extended Air Defense System (MEADS).
Some weather radar applications e.g. wind profilers work with these frequencies because the
electromagnetic (EM) waves are very low affected by clouds and rain.
The new technology of Ultra-wideband (UWB) Radars uses all frequencies from A- to C-Band.
UWB- radars transmit very low pulses in all frequencies simultaneously. They are used for
technically material examination and as Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) for archaeological
explorations.

1-3-3 D- Band (L-Band Radar)

This frequency band (1 to 2 GHz) (Figure 1-3) is preferred for the operation of long-range air-
surveillance radars out to 250 NM (≈460 km). They transmit pulses with high power, broad
bandwidth and an intra-pulse modulation often. Due to the curvature of the earth the achievable
maximum range is limited for targets flying with low altitude. These objects disappear very fast
behind the radar horizon. In Air Traffic Management (ATM) long-range surveillance radars like
the Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR) works in this frequency band. Coupled with a Mono-
pulse Secondary Surveillance Radar (MSSR) they use a relatively large, but slower rotating
antenna. The designator L-Band is good as large antenna or long range.

1-3-4 E/F-Band (S-Band Radar)

The atmospheric attenuation is higher than in D-Band. Radar sets need a considerably higher
transmitting power than in lower frequency ranges to achieve a good maximum range. As example
given the Medium Power Radar (MPR) with a pulse power of up to 20 MW. In this frequency
range the influence of weather conditions is higher than in D-band. Therefore, a couple of weather
radars work in E/F-Band, but more in sub-tropic and tropic climatic conditions, because here the
radar can see beyond a severe storm. Special Airport Surveillance Radars (ASR) are used at
airports to detect and display the position of aircraft in the terminal area with a medium range up
to 50…60 NM (≈100 km). An ASR detects aircraft position and weather conditions in the vicinity
of civilian and military airfields. The designator S-Band (contrary to L-Band) is good as smaller
antenna or shorter range (Figure 1-3) .

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

1-3-5 G- Band (C-Band Radar)

In G- Band (Figure 1-3) there are many mobile military battlefield surveillance, missile-control
and ground surveillance radar sets with short or medium range. The size of the antennas provides
an excellent accuracy and resolution, but the relatively small-sized antennas don't bother a fast
relocation. The influence of bad weather conditions is very high. Therefore air-surveillance radars
use an antenna feed with circular polarization often. This frequency band is predetermined for
most types of weather radar used to locate precipitation in temperate zone like Europe.

1-3-6 I/J- Band (X- and Ku- Band Radars)

In this frequency-band (8 to 12 GHz) the relationship between used wavelength and size of the
antenna is considerably better than in lower frequency bands (Figure 1-3). The I/J- Band is a
relatively popular radar band for military applications like airborne radars for performing the roles
of interceptor, fighter, and attack of enemy fighters and of ground targets. A very small antenna
size provides a good performance. Missile guidance systems at I/J- band are of a convenient size
and are, therefore, of interest for applications where mobility and light weight are important and
very long range is not a major requirement.
This frequency band is wide used for maritime civil and military navigation radars. Very small
and cheap antennas with a high rotation speed are adequate for a fair maximum range and a good
accuracy. Slotted waveguide and small patch antennas are used as radar antenna, under a
protective Radom mostly. This frequency band is also popular for space-borne or airborne
imaging radars based on Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) both for military electronic intelligence
and civil geographic mapping. A special Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar (ISAR) is in use as a
maritime airborne instrument of pollution control.

1-3-7 K- Band (K- and Ka- Band Radars)

The higher the frequency, the higher is the atmospheric absorption and attenuation of the waves.
Otherwise the achievable accuracy and the range resolution rise too. Radar applications in this
frequency band provide short range, very high resolution and high data renewing rate. In Air
Traffic Management (ATM) these radar sets are called Surface Movement Radar (SMR). Using
of very short transmitting pulses of a few nanoseconds affords a range resolution, that outline of
the aircraft can be seen on the radars display (Figure 1-3).

1-3-8 V-Band
By the molecular dispersion (here this is the influence of the air humidity), this frequency band
stay for a high attenuation. Radar applications are limited for a short range of a couple of meters
here (Figure 1-3).

1-3-9 W-Band
Here are two phenomena visible: a maximum of attenuation at about 75 GHz and a relative
minimum at about 96 GHz. Both frequency ranges are in use practically. In automotive
engineering small built in radar sets operate at 75…76 GHz for parking assistants, blind spot and
brake assists. The high attenuation (here the influence of the oxygen molecules O2) enhances the
immunity to interference of these radar sets. There are radar sets operating at 96 to 98 GHz as
laboratory equipments yet. These applications give a preview for a use of radar in extremely
higher frequencies as 100 GHz (Figure 1-3).

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Figure 1-3: Some radars and its frequency bands

1-4 Classification of Radar Sets

Radar systems may be divided into many types based on the design use. This section presents the
general characteristics of several commonly used radar systems as illustrated in tree below.

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Figure 1-4: General Radars Classification

where;
ASR: Airport Surveillance Radar
PAR : Precision Approach Radar
ASDE: Airport Surface Detection Equipment
GPR: Ground-Penetrating Radar

• Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) systems: Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) is approach
control radar used to detect and display an aircraft's position in the terminal area. These radar sets
operate usually in E-Band, and are capable of reliably detecting and tracking aircraft at altitudes
below 25,000 feet (7,620 meters) and within 40 to 60 nautical miles (75 to 110 km) of their airport.
• Precision Approach Radar (PAR) systems: The ground-controlled approach is a control mode
in which an aircraft is able to land in bad weather. The pilot is guided by ground control using
precision approach radar. The guidance information is obtained by the radar operator and passed
to the aircraft by either voice radio or a computer link to the aircraft.

• Surface Movement Radars (SMR): The Surface Movement Radar (SMR) scans the airport
surface to locate the positions of aircraft and ground vehicles and displays them for air traffic
controllers in bad weather. Surface movement radars operate in J- to X- band and uses an extremely
short pulse-width to provide an acceptable range-resolution. SMR are part of the Airport Surface
Detection Equipment (ASDE).

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

• Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a geophysical method that employs an electromagnetic

technique. The method transmits and receives radio waves to probe the subsurface. One of the
earliest successful applications was measuring ice thickness on polar ice sheets in 1960s (Knödel
et al., 2007). Since then, there have been rapid developments in hardware, measurement and
analysis techniques, and the method has been extensively used in many applications, such as
archaeology, civil engineering, forensics, geology and utilities detection (Daniels, 2004). On the
other hand, the Classification of radar by Waveform is illustrated in Figure 1-5.

Figure 1-5: The Classification of radar by Waveform

where;
CW : Continuous wave
FMCW : Frequency modulated continuous wave
PRF : Pulse repetition frequency
MTI : Moving target indicator

Notes :
• The receiver is called a superheterodyne receiver when the radar system contains the
intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier.
• Coherent radar uses the same local oscillator reference for transmit and receive.

1-5 Basic Radar Concept:

The electronics principle on which radar operates is very similar to the principle of sound-wave
reflection. If you shout in the direction of a sound reflecting object (like a rocky canyon or cave),
they will be hear an echo. If you know the speed of sound in air, you can then estimate the distance
and general direction of the object. The time required for a return echo can be roughly converted
to distance if the speed of sound is known. Radar uses electromagnetic (EM) energy pulses in
much the same way, as shown in Figure 1-6. The radio-frequency (RF) energy is transmitted to
and reflected from the reflecting object (target). A small portion of the energy is reflected and
returns to the radar set. This returned energy is called an ECHO, just as it is in sound terminology.
Radar sets use the echo to determine the direction and distance of the reflecting object.

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Figure 1- 6: Radar echo

Signal Routing

Figure 1-7, or from the heading line of a ship or aircraft. The surface of the earth is represented by an

is perpendicular to the horizontal plane. This second plane is called the VERTICAL PLANE.

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Figure 1-7: Radar reference coordinates

The radar location is the center of this coordinate system. The line from the radar set directly to
the object is referred to as the LINE OF SIGHT (LOS). The length of this line is called RANGE.
The angle between the horizontal plane and the LOS is the ELEVATION ANGLE. The angle
measured clockwise from true north in the horizontal plane is called the TRUE BEARING or
AZIMUTH ANGLE. These three coordinates of range, bearing, and elevation describe the location
of an object with respect to the antenna.

1-6 Signal Timing:

The time between the beginning of one pulse and the start of the next pulse is called pulse-
repetition time (prt) and is equal to the reciprocal of prf as follow:

1
prt =
prf

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

The pulse repetition frequency (prf) of the radar system is the number of pulses that are transmitted
per second. the frequency of pulse transmission affects the maximum range that can be displayed,
as we shall see later (see Figure 1-8).

Figure 1-8: A typical radar time line

1-7 Range:

𝑡𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 .𝑐
𝑅=
2

R is the slant range or distance (m)

t delay is the time taken for the signal to travel to the
target and return or respective running time (s)
c is the speed of light (approx. 3.108 m/s)

On the other side, when using different units of measurements (statute or nautical miles).

statute mile is approximately 162,000 nautical miles(1).

(1)
Notes :
1 Km = 1000 Meter 1 Meter = 1.09361 Yard
1 Mile = 1.60934 Km 1 Yard = 3 Foot
1 Nautical miles = 1.15078 Mile 1 Inch = 2.54 cm
1 Nautical miles = 1.852 Km 1 Second = 106 Microsecond
1 Meter = 3.28084 Foot

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

To relate radar timing to distances traveled by radar energy, you should know that radiated
energy from a radar set travels at approximately 984 feet per microsecond. With the knowledge
that a nautical mile is approximately 6080 feet. We can figure the approximate time required for
radar energy to travel one nautical mile using the following calculation:

Question:

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

1-7-1 Minimum Range:

The duplexer is a device in radar system that alternately switches the antenna between the
transmitter and receiver so that only one antenna need be used. This switching is

The minimum range , in yards, at which a target (object) can be detected is determined

For example, minimum range for a radar system with a pulse width of 25 microseconds and
a recovery time of 0.1 microseconds is figured as follows:

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

1-7-2 Slant Range:

Cause by the fact that the radar unit measures a slop range, the radar measures different ranges of
two airplanes, which exactly one above the other flies (therefore having the same topographical
distance to the radar unit exactly). The false measurement could be corrected by software, or
module in modern radar sets with digital signal processing (Figure 1-9).

Figure 1-9: Different height causes a different slant range

1-7-3 Maximum Range:

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

1-7-4 Maximum Unambiguous Range:

(see Figure 1-10).

Figure 1-10: A second-sweep echo in a distance of 400km assumes a wrong range of 100km

Figure 1-11 shows a radar system with a 1 msec. prt. The pulses are shown at the top, and

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

miles
162,000
R max unambiguous = second . prt
2

Figure 1-11: Maximum unambiguous range

Example: Consider a radar with pulse repetition frequency 1000 Hz. (a) Find the time duration
between two pulses. (b) Suppose an echo from a distant object is received 20 μ sec after a pulse is
transmitted, what is the distance of the object from the radar? (c) Is there a second -time-around
echo from this object?
Solution: The pulse repetition frequency fp = 1000 Hz. (a) The time duration between pulses is
given by

(b) The echo is received after TR = 20μsec = 20 × 10−6 sec. Remember that TR is the time taken
by the pulse to cover the distance from the radar to the object and back. Hence, the time taken by
the pulse to travel one way (i.e., from the radar to the object) is half of TR. Since the speed of
propagation is c = 3. 108 m/sec, the distance of the object from the radar is given by,

(c) A second-time-around echo occurs only when the distance of the object is more than the
maximum unambiguous range of the radar. Also remember that the Runamb is that distance of an
object for which the echo comes back exactly t0 seconds after being transmitted. Hence,

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Since the distance of the object is much less than Runamb, there is no second-time-around echo.

1-8 Pulse-Repetition Frequency and Power Calculations: The energy content

information with each pulse. The resulting waveform for transmitter was shown in figure 1-12. The

average power. Figure 1-12 illustrate the average power would be shown as the total

The average power (Pavg) is figured as follows:

Where: Ppk = peak power, pw = pulse width, prt = pulse-repetition time

pw
Pavg = Ppk .
prt

Figure 1-12: Pulse energy content

Because 1/prt is equal to prf, the formula may be written as follows:

Pavg = Ppk . pw. prf

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

The product of pulse width (pw) and pulse-repetition frequency (prf) in the above formula is called the
DUTY CYCLE of a radar system. The duty cycle is a ratio of the time on to the time off of the transmitter,
as shown in figure 1-13. The formula for duty cycle is shown below:

duty cycle = pw . prf

Figure 1-13: Duty cycle

The most common formula for average power is expressed as:

Pavg = Ppk . duty cycle

Example: Find the peak power, when

Solution:

1-9 Antenna Height and Speed: Another factor affecting radar range is antenna height. The

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

...... proved it ?

Example: Assume Antenna height to be 64 feet, find the horizon distance in nautical mile

Solution:

A target at a range greater than the radar horizon will not be detected unless it is high enough to be
above the horizon. An example of the antenna-and target-height relationship is shown in figure 1-14.
The number of strikes per antenna revolution is referred to as hits per scan. During each revolution
enough pulses must be transmitted to return a usable echo.

Figure 1-14: Radar horizon

Example: If the antenna rotates at 20 rpm, it completes a revolution in 3 seconds. During this

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

1-10 Direction Determination:

1-10-1 Bearing:

Both true and relative bearing angles are illustrated in figure 1-15.

Figure 1.15: True and relative bearing

The antennas of most radar systems are designed to radiate energy in a 1-dimensional lobe or beam that
can be moved in bearing simply by moving the antenna. As you can see in figure 1-16, the shape of the

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Figure 1.16: Determination of bearing

There is many important definition are necessary to understand the principle radar operation:

1-10-2 Elevation Angle (ε):

The elevation angle is the angle between the horizontal plane and the line of sight, measured in the
vertical plane. The elevation angle is positive above the horizon (0º elevation angle), but negative
below the horizon (see Figure 1-17).

Figure 1-17: The elevation angle

1-10-3 Height or Altitude:

horizontal planes. An electronic elevation-scanning pattern for a search radar set (Figure 1-18)

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Figure 1.18: Electronic elevation scan

True altitude is the actual airplane distance above main sea level. The altitude can be
calculated with the values of distance R and elevation angle ε, as shown in figure 1-19.

Figure 1-19: Altitude vs. height

proved it ?

Therefore all these equations are an approximation only. Figure 1- 20: Calculation of height

1-11 Radar or Target Resolution:

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

1-11-1 Angular Resolution:

Angular resolution is the minimum angular separation at which two equal targets can be separated
when at the same range. The angular resolution characteristics of a radar are determined by the
antenna beam width represented by the -3 dB angle Θ which is defined by the half-power (-3 dB)
points. The half-power points of the antenna radiation pattern (i.e. the -3 dB beam width) are
normally specified as the limits of the antenna beam width for the purpose of defining angular
resolution; two identical targets at the same distance are, therefore, resolved in angle if they are
separated by more than the antenna -3 dB beam width (see Figure 1-21).

Figure 1-21: The distance SA depends on the slant-range

An important remark has to be made immediately: the smaller the beam width Θ, the higher the
directivity of the radar antenna. The angular resolution as a distance between two targets calculate
the following formula:

The angular resolution of targets on an analogue PPI display, in practical terms, is dependent on
the operator being able to distinguish the two targets involved. Systems having Target-Recognition
feature can improve their angular resolution. Cause such systems are able to compare individual
Target-Pulse-Amplitudes.

Example: The beam width of a radar antenna may be easily estimated even to persons that don't
have an affinity for radar technology. For a rough calculation, you can use the ratio of the
wavelength to the antenna size.

The air traffic radar ASR-910, operates in a frequency range of 2700 to 2900 MHz, which
corresponds to a wavelength of about 11 cm. (In most cases this also corresponds to approximately
4/3 of the width of the waveguides to the antenna radiators.)
The parabolic reflector is about 4 m wide, roughly estimated.

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 Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

The ratio of both quantities is then about 0.03. According to equation above gives sin-1(0,03) a
beam width of 1.72 degrees. That's a very good approximation compared to the manufacturer
information of 1.55 degrees. This estimated value as the basis for calculating the azimuth
resolution gives a necessary target distance of 900 m at a distance of 30 km (with an error of
estimation of about 10 percent here).

1-11-2 Range Resolution (Sr or rR or r or r):

c. τ
Sr = (m)
2
In pulse compression system, the range resolution (Sr), is inversely related to the signal
bandwidth (B) of the transmitted pulse not by its pulse width. where c is the speed of light in the
medium and 𝜏 is the pulse width time.
c
Sr ≥ (m) Sr = 164. τ (μsec) , yards
2B

This allows very high resolution to be obtained with long pulses, thus with a higher average power.
Figures 1-22 and 1-23 show the two targets with small spacing and the two targets, with large
spacing enough, respectively.

Figure 1-22: 2 targets with small spacing Figure 1- 23: 2 targets, with large spacing enough

The bandwidth of the received signal should match the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
A receiver bandwidth wider than the incoming signal bandwidth permits additional noise with
no additional signal, and SNR is reduced. A receiver bandwidth narrower than the incoming
signal bandwidth reduces the noise and signal equally, and the radar’s range resolution is
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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

reduced. Therefore to achieve an rR of 1.5 m in free space requires a 100 MHz bandwidth in
both the transmitted waveform and the receiver bandwidth.

Example: If the radar system has a pulse width of 5 microseconds, calculate the range
resolution

Solution:
𝑆𝑟 = 164. 𝜏 = 820 yards

1-11-3 Resolution Cell:

Figure 1- 24: The resolution cell

1-11-4 Bearing Resolution:

When the half-power points are connected to the antenna by a curve, such as that shown in figure 1-25,

In figure 1-25, only the target within the half-power points will reflect a useful echo. Two
targets at the same range must be separated by at least one beam width to be distinguished as
two objects.

Figure 1.25: Beam half-power points

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Question: The degree of bearing resolution for a given radar system depends on what two
factors? Explain each factor.

1-11-5 Velocity Resolution:

The signal from a target may be written as; E t   E0 e j ct  2 k R 

2R
and the relative phase of the received signal ();    2 k R  2 , rad

A target moving relative to the radar produces a changing phase (i.e., a frequency shift) known
as the Doppler frequency (fD)
1 d 2 2v
fD    R   r , Hz
2  dt  
where vr is the radial component of the relative velocity.

The Doppler frequency can be positive or negative with a positive shift corresponding to target
moving toward the radar. The received signal frequency will be;

f  f c  f D  f c  2 R 
Example : Consider a police radar with operating frequency (fo), of 10 GHz ( = 0.03 m). It
observes an approaching car traveling at 70 mph (31.3 m/s) down the highway. (v = -31.3 m/s).
The frequency of the received signal will be

fo – 2v/ = fo + 2.086 kHz or 10,000,002,086 Hz

Another car is moving away down the highway traveling at 55 mph (+24.6 m/s). The frequency
of the received signal will be

fo – 2v/ = fo – 1.64 kHz or 9,999,998,360 Hz

1-12 Radar Accuracy:

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

1-12-1 Pulse shape:

to zero. Figure 1-26 illustrates the effects of pulse shapes.

Figure 1-26: Pulse shapes and effects

1-12-2 Atmospheric Conditions:

slightly downward, as shown in figure 1-27. The downward curve extends the radar horizon
beyond a line tangent to the earth, as illustrated in figure 1-28.

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Figure 1-27: Wave front path

Figure 1-28: Extension of the radar horizon

The reason for the downward curve can be illustrated using line AB in Figure 1-27. Line AB

illustrated in figure 1-29.

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Figure 1-29: Ducting effect on the radar wave

1-13 Radar Principles of Operation and its Components:

radar sets. A brief functional description of subsystem principles of operation will be provided.
Most radar systems

Pulse radar systems can be functionally divided into the six essential components shown in figure
1-30. These components are briefly described in the following paragraphs and will be explained
in detail after that:

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Figure 1-30: Functional block diagram of a basic radar system

functional block diagram in figure 1-30. An actual radar set may have several of these functional

1-13-1 Synchronizer (Timer):

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 Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

1-13-2 Transmitter:

microwave amplifier, such as klystron, that is supplied by a low -power RF source. The

1-13-3 Duplexer:

1-13-4 Antenna System:

1-13-5 Receiver:

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 Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

1-13-6 Indicator:

1-14 Scanning:

1-14-1 Stationary-Lobe Scanning:

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

1-14-2 Method of Beam Scanning:

A- Mechanical Scanning: The most common type of mechanical scanning is the rotation of

By movement of either the waveguide or the antenna, you can generate a conical scan pattern,
as shown in figure 1-31. The axis of the radar lobe is made to sweep out a cone in space; the
apex of this cone is, of course, at the radar transmitter antenna or reflector. At any given distance
from the antenna. The path of the lobe axis is a circle. Within the useful range of the beam, the
inner edge of the lobe always overlaps the axis of scan.

Figure 1-31: Conical scanning

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For example, if the target is to the left of the scan axis, as shown in figure 1-32, the reflected signals will

(a) (b)
Path of beam during scanning Reflected signal strength

Figure 1-32: Scanning and reflected signal

B- Electronic Scanning: Electronic scanning can accomplish lobe motion more rapidly than,

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 Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

1-33 for 4 targets at different positions with respect the beam axis. Note that a phase inversion takes
place at the microwave lens similar to the image inversion that takes place in an optical system.

Figure 1-33: Monopulse scanning

Since the horns are positioned as in figure 1-33, the relative amplitudes of the horn signals give an

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 Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

1-15 Radar Transmission Methods:

1-15-1Continuous - Wave Method:

A- Doppler Effect:

in view A of Fig. 1-34. The total distance from point P to the observer is 1,080 feet. The velocity of

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Figure 1-34: Transmitter moving relative to an observer

If the transmitter were traveling away from the observer, as shown in view B of figure 1-34, the first

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

B- Uses CW Doppler System:

1-15-2 Frequency-Modulation Method:

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An example of a frequency-modulated signal, plotted against time, is shown in Figure 1-35, As

Figure 1-35: Frequency-modulation chart

1-15-3 Pulse-Modulation Method:

short time and the pulse of radio-frequency energy is transmitted, as shown in figure 1-36. The

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

Figure 1-36: Pulse detection

1-15-4 Pulse-Doppler Method:

1-16 Radar Classification and Use:

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1-16-1 Military Classification of Radar Systems:

1-16-2 Radar Types:

A- Search Radar:

B- Surface-Search Radar:

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conditions. A typical surface-search radar antenna is shown in figure 1-37.

Figure 1-37: Surface-search radar

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C- Air-Search Radar:

in figure 1-38. A typical 2D air-search radar antenna is shown in figure 1-39.

Figure 1-38: 2D radar coverage pattern

Figure 1-39: 2D air-search radar

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D- Height-Finding Search Radar:

interception of air targets. Modern 3D radar is often used as the primary air-search radar (figure 1-40).

Figure1-40: 3D air-search radar

Applications of height-finding radars include the following:

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

E- Tracking Radar:

make initial target detection difficult. A typical fire-control radar antenna is shown in figure
1-41. In this example the antenna used to produce a narrow beam is covered by a protective
Radom.

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Figure 1-41: Fire-control radar

F- Missile-Guidance Radar:

1-42 illustrates the relationships of the three different radar beams.

Figure 1-42: Beam relationship of capture, guidance, and track beams

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Chapter one ........................................................................... Principles of Radar

G- Carrier- and Ground- Controlled Approach (CCA), (GCA) Radar, Respectively:

H- Airborne Radar:

1-17 Applications of Radars:

On ground : Detection, location, and tracking of aircraft and space targets.
In the air : Detection of other aircraft, ships, or land vehicles; mapping of land; storm
avoidance, terrain avoidance, and navigation.
On the sea : Navigation aid and safety device to locate buoys, shore lines, other ships, and for
observation of aircraft.

In space : Guidance of spacecraft; remote sensing of land and sea.

Some specific applications are as follows:

Air traffic control : Controlling of air traffic in the vicinity of airports; and also for automated
landing.

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Aircraft navigation: Weather avoidance to indicate regions of severe precipitation; terrain

following/terrain avoidance (TF/TA); radio altimeter and Doppler
navigator are also radars.
Ship safety : Collision avoidance; detection of navigation buoys.
Space : Rendezvous and docking; landing on the moon and other planets; detection
and tracking of satellites.
Remote sensing: Sensing of geophysical object, or the ”environment” like weather, cloud
cover, earth resources, water resources, agriculture, forests, geological
formation, etc. This is usually done from aircraft or satellites.
Law enforcement : To monitor speed of vehicles in traffic.
Military : Surveillance and navigation; control and guidance of weapons.

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