Digital Communications DR Moh-2nd Term (2019)

University of Technology Class: 3rd year
Department of ElectroMechanical Engineering Subject: Communications and

Electro-Mechanical Systems Engineering branch Digital Signal Processing
Navigation and Guidance Engineering branch Lecturer: Dr. Mohammed Q. Sulttan
Digital Communications
Digital communication systems are becoming increasingly attractive because of the ever-growing demand for
data communication and digital transmission. The principle feature of a digital communication system (DCS) is
that during a finite interval of time, it sends a waveform from a finite set of possible waveforms, in contrast to an
analog communication system, which sends a waveform from an infinite variety of waveform shapes with
theoretically infinite resolution.
Advantages of Digital Communication

As the signals are digitized, there are many advantages of digital communication over analog communication,
such as:
 The effect of distortion, noise, and interference is much less in digital signals as they are less affected.
 Digital circuits are more reliable.
 Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog circuits.
 The hardware implementation in digital circuits, is more flexible than analog.
 The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.
 Signal processing functions such as encryption and compression are employed in digital circuits to
maintain the secrecy of the information.
 The probability of error occurrence is reduced by employing error detecting and error correcting codes.
 Spread spectrum technique is used to avoid signal jamming.
 Combining digital signals using Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is easier than combining analog
signals using Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).
 The configuring process of digital signals is easier than analog signals.
 Digital signals can be saved and retrieved more conveniently than analog signals.
 The capacity of the channel is effectively utilized by digital signals.
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Concepts for Basics of Digital Communications

The following are some of the basic digital signal terminologies that appears in digital communications systems:
Information source: This is the device producing information to be communicated by means of the DCS. The
information source can be analog or discrete. The output of analog source can have any value in a continuous
range of amplitudes, whereas the output of a discrete information source takes its value from a finite set.
Textual message: This is a sequence of characters. For digital transmission as in Figure 1-a, the message will be
a sequence of digits or symbols from a finite symbol set or alphabet.
Character: A character is a member of an alphabet or set of symbols. Characters may be mapped into a sequence
of binary digits. See Figure 1-b. There are several standardized codes used for character encoding, including the
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
(EBCDIC), Hollerith, Baudot, Murray, and Morse.
Binary digit (a bit): This is the fundamental information unit for all digital systems. The term bit also is used as
a unit of information content.
Bit stream: This is a sequence of binary digits (ones and zeros). Figure 1-c, show as the message, “HOW” that
represented with the 7-bit ASCII character code, where the bit stream is shown by using a convenient picture of
2-level pulses.
Symbol (digital message): A symbol is a group of “𝑘” bits considered as a unit. This unit known as a message
symbol 𝑚𝑖 (𝑖=1,2,…., 𝑀)from a finite symbol set or alphabet (see Figure 1-d). The size of the alphabet, 𝑀, is 𝑀 =
2𝑘 , where 𝑘 is the number of bits in the symbol.
Digital waveform: This is a voltage or current waveform that represents a digital symbol. The waveform
characteristics (amplitude, width, and position for pulses or amplitude, frequency, and phase for sinusoids) allow
its identification as one of the symbols in the finite symbol alphabet. Figure 1-e shows an example of a bandpass
digital waveform.
𝑘 1
Data rate: This quantity in bits per second (bits/s) is given by 𝑅 = = ( ) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑀 bits/s, where 𝑘 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑀
𝑇 𝑇
bits identify a symbol from an 𝑀 = 2𝑘 -symbol alphabet, 𝑇 is the 𝑘-bit symbol duration, and 𝑀 is the 𝑀 – ray
signaling, each symbol in an 𝑀 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 alphabet can be related to a unique sequence of 𝑘-bit.
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Figure 1. Nomenclature examples. (a) Textual messages. (b) Characters. (c) Bit stream (7-bit ASCll).
(d) Symbols 𝒎𝒊 (𝒊=1,2,…., 𝑴), 𝑴 = 𝟐𝒌 . (e) Bandpass digital waveform 𝒔𝒊 (𝒊=1,2,…., 𝑴).
Comparison between digital signals and analog signals:

Analog Digital
Signal Analog signal is a continuous signal Digital signals are discrete time signals generated
which represents physical by digital modulation.
measurements.
Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves
Representation Uses continuous range of values to Uses discrete or discontinuous values to represent
represent information information
Example Human voice in air, analog Computers, CDs, DVDs, and other digital
electronic devices. electronic devices.
Technology Analog technology records Samples analog waveforms into a limited set of
waveforms as they are. numbers and records them.
Response to Noise More likely to get affected reducing Less affected since noise response are analog in
accuracy nature
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Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. Digital hardware is flexible in implementation.

Uses Can be used in analog devices only. Best suited for Computing and digital electronics.
Best suited for audio and video
transmission.
Bandwidth Analog signal processing can be There is no guarantee that digital signal processing
done in real time and consumes less can be done in real time and consumes more
bandwidth. bandwidth to carry out the same information.
Memory Stored in the form of wave signal Stored in the form of binary bit
Power Analog instrument draws large Digital instrument draws only negligible power
power
Performance of Digital Communication System

The performance of digital communication can discuss through two elements; the Effectiveness and the Reliability.
1) Effectiveness (validity)
To explain the Effectiveness, we must illustrate two important things, the first one is Transmission Rate and the
second is Bandwidth.
Transmission Rate: The information is conveyed (transmitted) by a change in values of the signal in time. Since
the frequency of a signal is a direct measure of the rate of change in values of the signal, the more the frequency
of a signal, more is the achievable data rate or information transfer rate.
 Information Transmission Rate: measured in bits per second 𝑅𝑏 (bps)
 Symbol Transmission Rate: measured in symbols per second or Bauds 𝑅𝐵 (Bauds)
𝑹𝒃 = 𝑹𝑩 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝑴 , 𝑀 = 2𝑘 , 𝑘 # bits
Example 1: If we transmit a message consisting of seven symbols in one second {Red, Orange, Yellow, Green,
Cyan, Blue, Purple}, {000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110} calculate the information transmission rate for this
transmit process?
Sol: Each symbol represent by 3 bits, so M=23, 𝑅𝐵 =7 Bauds
Information transmission rate 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝐵 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑀 = 7×3=21 bps
Example 2: If the information transmission rate of M-ary PSK is 1500bps, M=8. Determine the symbol
transmission rate.
Sol: the symbol transmission rate is 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝑏 /𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑀 = 1500/𝑙𝑜𝑔2 8 = 500 Bauds
Example 3: If the symbol transmission rate of QPSK is 3000 Bauds. Determine the rate of the information
transmission.
Sol: M for QPSK=4, 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝐵 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑀 = 3000𝑙𝑜𝑔2 4 = 6000 bps
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Bandwidth Efficiency: It is also known as spectral efficiency or spectrum efficiency, refers to the information
rate that can be transmitted over a given bandwidth in a specific communication system. Or it’s a maximum
amount of data can be transmitted with the fewest transmission errors. The bandwidth efficiency (𝔶𝑏 ) of a digital
communication system is measured in bit/s/Hz. Also, the bandwidth efficiency (𝔶𝐵 ) measured in Bauds/Hz. As
an example, the transmission technique that using one kilohertz of bandwidth to transmit 1,000 bits per second
has a modulation efficiency of 1 (bit/s)/Hz.
𝖞𝒃 = 𝑹𝒃 /𝑩 Measured in bps/Hz
𝖞𝑩 = 𝑹𝑩 /𝑩 Measured in Bauds/Hz
Table1 the theoretical bandwidth efficiency limits for the main modulation types
Modulation Theoretical bandwidth
format efficiency limits
MSK 1 bit/second/Hz
BPSK 1 bit/second/Hz
QPSK 2 bit/second/Hz
8PSK 3 bit/second/Hz
16 QAM 4 bit/second/Hz
256 QAM 8 bits/second/Hz
Example 4: The TDMA version of the North American Digital Cellular (NADC) system (π/4 DQPSK based
system), achieves a 48 Kbits-per second data rate over a 30 kHz bandwidth or 1.6 bits per second per Hz, calculate
the bandwidth efficiency and compare it with the value in table1?
𝑅𝑏 48000𝑏𝑝𝑠
Sol: 𝔶𝑏 = = = 1.6 𝑏𝑝𝑠/𝐻𝑧
𝐵 30000𝐻𝑧
We can see that the theoretical efficiency would be two bits per second per Hz and in practice, it is 1.6 bits per
second per Hz.
Example 5: If we deal with a microwave digital radio using 16QAM, in this microwave-digital-radio the bit rate
is140 Mbits per second over a very wide bandwidth of 52.5 MHz, calculate the bandwidth efficiency and compare
it with the value in table1?
𝑅𝑏 140×106 𝑏𝑝𝑠
Sol: 𝔶𝑏 = = = 2.7 𝑏𝑝𝑠/𝐻𝑧
𝐵 52.5×106 𝐻𝑧
From the table1 the theoretical efficiency=4 and in practice it is 2.7 bits per second per Hz.
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2) Reliability
The reliability of the digital system is defined as the probability of making the correct decision at the output of
the system when a digit enters the system. The reliability of any communication system depends on the signal-
to-noise ratio (SNR) calculation or on the Bit/Symbol Error Rate (BER, SER) (Probability of Error).
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR or S/N): is a measure used in communication systems to compare the level of the
desired signal to the level of background noise. It is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power, often
expressed in decibels.
𝑷𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍
𝑺𝑵𝑹 =
𝑷𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆
Bit/Symbol Error Rate (BER, SER) or Probability of Error: It is the number of bit errors per unit time. The BER
is the number of bit errors divided by the total number of transferred bits during a studied time interval. In digital
transmission, the number of bit errors is the number of received bits of a data stream over a communication
channel that has been altered due to noise, interference, distortion or bit synchronization errors.
BER 𝑃𝑒𝑏 = 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠/ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
SER 𝑃𝑒𝐵 = 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑠/ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑠
Table 2 show the summary and comparison between Effectiveness and Reliability in both analog and
digital communication systems
Effectiveness Reliability
Analog Communication Systems Bandwidth SNR
Digital Communication Systems 𝑅𝑏 , 𝑅𝐵 , 𝔶𝑏 , 𝔶𝐵 𝑃𝑒𝑏 , 𝑃𝑒𝐵
Communication Systems Models
The communication systems are classified into several types according to signals and its transmission methods
during this systems.
1. Analog communication systems, Figure 2 shown example of such system (For instance: Cable TV).
Figure 2. Analog Passband Communication Systems

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2. Digital Communication Systems, Figure 3 & 4 shown examples of such system (For instance: HD TV,
Computer).
Figure 3. Digital Baseband Communication Systems
Figure 4. Digital Passband Communication Systems

3. Digital Transmission of Analog Signals (For instance: Digital TV), as shown in Figure 5.
Analog A/D Digital Digital D/A Analog

Signals Converter Signals Communications Converter Signals
Figure 5. Digital Transmission of Analog Signals
4. Analog Transmission of Digital Signals (For instance: Modem), as shown in Figure 6.
Digital D/A Analog Analog A/D Digital

Signals Converter Signals Communications Converter Signals
Figure 6. Analog Transmission of Digital Signals
Transmission Methods in Communication systems

There are three transmission methods in Communication systems (simplex, half duplex, and full duplex).
1. Simplex Communications: (only one way) it is a communication channel that sends information in one
direction only, or it is a communications channel that operates in one direction at a time. For example, in TV
and radio broadcasting in which one device transmits and the others can only "listen", information flows only
from the transmitter site to multiple receivers. The transmission medium (the radio signal over the air) can
carry information in only one direction as shown in Figure 7.
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Information in Information out

Transmitter Channel Receiver
InInformation InInformation
Figure 7. Simplex Communications
2. Half Duplex Communications: (may be two-way, but one way at any time) In a half-duplex system, there are
still two clearly defined paths/channels, and each party can communicate with the other but not simultaneously;
the communication is one direction at a time. An example of a half-duplex device is a walkie-talkie two-way
radio, Figure 8 show the half-duplex system.
Figure 8. Half-Duplex Communications

3. Full Duplex Communications: (two-way communications simultaneously). In Figure 9, a full-duplex system,
both parties can communicate with each other simultaneously. An example of a full-duplex device is a
telephone; the parties at both ends of a call can speak and be heard by the other party simultaneously.
Figure 9. Full Duplex Communications

Multiplexing techniques
In communications, the multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, which may be a physical
transmission medium. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the low-level communication channel into several
higher-level logical channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process,
known as demultiplexing, can extract the original channels on the receiver side.
Why do we need Multiplexing technique? In communication, under the simplest conditions, a medium can carry
only one signal at any moment in time. For multiple signals to share one medium, the medium must somehow be
divided, giving each signal a portion of the total bandwidth. This is where the concept of Multiplexing comes!
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Multiplexing means “sharing a medium”. It is a form of data transmission in which one communication channel
carries several transmissions at the same time.
Multiplexing techniques can be divided into four basic categories:
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
3. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
4. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) ( Optical)
 In FDM the available bandwidth is divided into a number of smaller independent logical channels with each
channel having a small bandwidth. It assigns “frequency ranges” to each “user” or “signal” on a medium. Thus,
all signals are transmitted at the same time, each using different frequencies. Figure 10 show the FDM technique.
Figure 10. The FDM technique

 In TDM, sharing is accomplished by dividing available “transmission time” on a medium/channel among users.
Each user of the channel is allotted a small time interval during which he transmits a message. In TDM, users
send message sequentially one after another. Each user can use the full channel bandwidth during the period he
has control over the channel.
TDM can be implemented in two ways: Synchronous TDM and Asynchronous TDM.
Synchronous TDM: The multiplexer allocates exactly the same time slot to each device at all times, whether or
not a device has anything to transmit. Time slot 1, for example, is assigned to device 1 alone and cannot be any
other device as shown in Figure 11.
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Figure 11. Synchronous TDM

In Synchronous TDM, a frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots. Thus the number of slots in a
frame is equal to the number of input. Figure 12 (A & B) are an example of how the Synchronous TDM work.
Figure 12. How the Synchronous TDM work

Asynchronous TDM: In asynchronous TDM, each slot in a frame is not dedicated to fixing the device. Each
slot contains an index of the device to be sent to a message. Thus, the number of slots in a frame is not
necessary to be equal to the number of input devices. Figure 13 show us the Asynchronous TDM.
Figure 13. Asynchronous TDM

In asynchronous TDM, a frame contains a fixed number of time slots. Each slot has an index of which device
to receive. Figure 14 (A & B) are examples of how asynchronous TDM works.
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Figure 14. How Asynchronous TDM work

Difference Between FDM and TDM
-FDM divides the channel into multiple, but smaller - TDM divides a channel by allocating a time period for
frequency ranges to accommodate more users. each channel.
- TDM provides much better flexibility compared to FDM.
- FDM proves much better latency compared to TDM. Latency is the time it takes for the data to reach its
destination. As TDM allocates time periods, only one channel can transmit at a given time, and some data would
often be delayed, though it’s often only in milliseconds. Since channels in FDM can transmit at any time, their
latencies would be much lower compared to TDM.
- TDM and FDM can be used in tandem (‫ واحد بعد االخر‬,‫ بالتزامن‬,‫)ترادفي‬. FDM and TDM are often used in tandem, to
create even more channels in a given frequency range.
 CDM defined as a form of multiplexing where the transmitter encodes the signal using a pseudo-random
sequence. CDM involves the original digital signal with a spreading code. This spreading has the effect of
spreading the spectrum of the signal greatly and reducing the power over anyone part of the spectrum.
 WDM is a technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by
using different wavelengths (i.e., colors) of laser light. This technique enables bidirectional communications
over one strand of fiber, as well as multiplication of capacity.
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Information theory
Information theory is a branch of mathematics that overlaps into many engineering sciences like information and
communications engineering science. The theory is devoted to the discovery and exploration of mathematical
laws that govern the behavior of data as it is transferred, stored, or retrieved. One of the most important
applications of information theory is to determine the optimum system design for a given practical scenario.
Whenever data is transmitted, stored, or retrieved, there are a number of variables must be calculated such as
bandwidth, noise, data transfer rate, storage capacity, number of channels, propagation delay, signal-to-noise ratio,
accuracy (or error rate), intelligibility, and reliability. Information theory provides methodologies to separate real
information from noise and to determine the channel capacity required for optimal transmission conditioned on
the transmission rate.
The foundation of information theory was laid in 1948 by Shannon. Shannon was interested in how much
information a given communication channel could transmit. Information theory is based on a measure of
uncertainty known as entropy.
The concept of probability

Probability is a branch of mathematics that deals with uncertainty. The term “probability” is used to quantify the
degree of belief or confidence that something is true (or false). It gives us the likelihood of occurrence of a given
event. It is expressed as a number that could take any value in the closed interval [0, 1].
Consider the following experiment describing a simple communication system. A user transmits data through a
noisy medium and another user receives it. Due to the noise characteristics of the communication medium, we do
not know whether the user at the destination will be able to hear what the sender has already spoken. Before
performing the experiment, we would like to know the likelihood that the user at the destination hears the
particular syllable (given the noise characteristics). This likelihood of the particular event is called probability of
the event.
These are other experiments: tossing a coin (observable results: Head/Tail), Rolling a die (observable results:
numbers on the faces of the die), drawing a card from a deck (observable results: symbols, numbers and alphabets
on the cards), sending & receiving bits in a communication system (observable results: bits/alphabets transferred
or voltage level at the receiver).
The Sample Space: is a set of all possible outcomes of the experiment. It plays the role of the universal set when
modeling the experiment. It is denoted by the letter “S”. Following examples illustrate the sample spaces for
various experiments. Tossing a coin 𝑆 = {𝐻, 𝑇}. Rolling a die 𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}.
Event: It is also a set of outcomes of an experiment. It is a subset of sample space. Each time the experiment is
run, either a particular event occurs or it does not occur. Events are associated with a probability number. For
example, tossing an unbiased (a fair) coin have a Sample Space 𝑆 = {𝐻, 𝑇}, Event - Getting "H" probability= 0.5
(50% chance), and Event - Getting "T" probability= 0.5 (50% chance).
Types of Events: Events can be classified according to their relationship with one another. The following points
show the classification of events and their definition.
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1. Independent Events: Events are not affected by each other, for example, tossing a coin three times-
outcome of one toss will not affect the other tosses are totally independent.
2. Dependent Events: Events are affected by each other, for example, continuously drawing from a deck of
cards without replacing the card, another example counting the number of heads on second toss.
3. Mutually Exclusive Events (‫)االحداث المتبادلة‬: Events cannot occur at the same time, for example, tossing a
coin, occurrences of head or tail are mutually exclusive.
Computing the Probability: The probability of the occurrence of an event (say ‘A’) is given by the ratio of the
number of ways that particular event can happen and the total number of all possible outcomes.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑛(𝐴)
𝑃(𝐴) = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑛(𝑆)
For example, consider the experiment of an unbiased rolling of a die. The sample space is given by S=
{1,2,3,4,5,6}. Let’s say that an event is defined as getting‘4’ when you roll the die. The probability of getting
the face with ‘4’ (event) can be calculated as follows.
𝑛(𝐴) 1
𝑃(𝐴) = =
𝑛(𝑆) 6
Axioms (‫ )بديهيات‬of Probability: Following definitions are assumed for the axioms listed below: ‘S’ denotes the
sample space of an experiment, ‘A’ and ‘B’ are events and P(A) denotes the probability of occurrence of event
‘A’.
 Probability cannot be negative, 𝑃(𝐴) ≥ 0.

 Probability of everything is 1, 𝑃(𝐴) = 1.
 If the events A&B are mutually exclusive, then:
1) Probability of occurrence of both events is null 𝑃(𝐴&𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = ∅.
2) Probability of occurrence of either of the events 𝑃(𝐴𝑜𝑟𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵).
Properties of Probability: there are some properties below,
1) 𝟎 ≤ 𝑷(𝑨) ≤ 𝟏.
2) 𝑷(𝑨 ̅ ) = 𝟏 − 𝑷(𝑨). 𝐴̅: indicates that the event A is NOT occurring.
3) 𝑷(∅) = 𝟎. The symbol Ø indicates null event.
4) If 𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩, 𝑷(𝑨) ≤ 𝑷(𝑩).
5) Generally, for any two events 𝑷(𝑨 ∪ 𝑩) = 𝑷(𝑨) + 𝑷(𝑩) − 𝑷(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩).
6) If the two events are mutually exclusive 𝑷(𝑨 ∪ 𝑩) = 𝑷(𝑨) + 𝑷(𝑩).
7) If the two events are independent 𝑷(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩) = 𝑷(𝑨) × 𝑷(𝑩).
Information & Entropy

Before knowing the relationship between entropy and information, we need to understand what information is?
Because the word "information" is so commonly used, people think it means something like 'knowledge', 'data',
or another thing.
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Information (I): Its represents how certain we are about the probability of something occurring. For example, if
we needed to tell someone a number on the dice, we would only use one word to say a number from one to six.
In other words, information is measured by how much we need to relay to describe a probable event and the more
you are expecting the event, then the less information you need to relay.
𝟏
Information 𝑰 (𝒔𝒌 ) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 ( ) = −𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝒑𝒌 , Measured in bits, where 𝑝𝑘 is the probability of 𝑠𝑘
𝒑𝒌
Information Properties: The 4 properties is
𝑰 (𝒔𝒌 ) = 𝟎 for 𝒑𝒌 = 𝟏
𝑰 (𝒔𝒌 ) > 𝟎 for 𝟎˂𝒑𝒌 ˂𝟏
𝑰 (𝒔𝒌 ) > 𝑰 (𝒔𝒊 ) for 𝒑𝒌 ˂𝒑𝒊
If statistically independent 𝑰(𝒔𝒌 𝒔𝒊 ) = 𝑰(𝒔𝒌 ) + 𝑰(𝒔𝒊 )
Example 6: The probability of English letter E is 0.105, determine its information.

𝟏
Sol: 𝑰 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝟎.𝟏𝟎𝟓 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 (bit)
Example 7: The probability of English letter x is 0.002, determine its information.

𝟏
Sol: 𝑰 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟕 (bit)
Entropy (H): It is the expected value (average) of the information contained in each message. 'Messages' can
be modeled by any flow of information. In another word, entropy is defined as the average amount of information
per source output and is expressed by:
𝟏
𝐻 = ∑𝑘−1
𝑘=0 𝒑𝒌 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 (𝒑 ) , bits per symbol
𝒌
where 𝑘 is number of symbols of the source, symbol: 𝑠0 , 𝑠1 , … … . , 𝑠𝑘−1 , probability: 𝑝0 , 𝑝1 , … … . , 𝑝𝐾−1
Example 8: Suppose a source emits 4 symbols: A, B, C, and D. The probability are 3/8, 1/4,1/4,1/8, respectively.
Furthermore, they occur independently. Determine the entropy of the source.
𝟏 1 1 1 1
Sol: 𝐻 = ∑𝑘−1
𝑘=0 𝒑𝒌 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 (𝒑 ) = 3/8 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 3/8 + 1/4 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 1/4 + 1/4 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 1/4 + 1/8 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 1/8 ≈ 1.91𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑠/𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙
𝒌
1
Entropy Properties: 0 ≤ 𝐻 = ∑𝐾−1
𝑘=0 𝑝𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (𝑝 ) ≤ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑘
𝑘
If entropy=0, 𝑝𝑘 = 1, for some k.

If entropy=1, 𝑝𝑘 = 1/𝑘 for all k.
14
Maximum Entropy Examples:

1 1
2 symbols: probabilities are ½, ½ respectively, 𝐻 = 1/2 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 1/2 + 1/2 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 1/2 = 1, bit/symbol.
1 1
2 symbols: probabilities are ¼, ¾ respectively, 𝐻 = 1/4 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 1 + 3/4 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 3 ≈ 0.81, bit/symbol.
4 4
Figure 15. Entropy versus probability (two events)

As shown in Figure 15. If we have a binary source with 0 and 1, with probabilities 𝑝0 and 𝑝1 , respectively.
𝑝1 = (1 − 𝑝0 ), the entropy is:
𝐻 = − (𝑝0 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑝0 + 𝑝1 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑝1 )
𝐻 = − 𝑝0 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑝0 − 𝑝1 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑝1
𝐻 = − 𝑝0 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑝0 − (1 − 𝑝0 ) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 − 𝑝0 )
Example 9: (a) Calculate the average information in bit/ character for the English language, assuming that each
of the 26 characters in the alphabet occurs with equal likelihood. Neglect spaces and punctuation. (b) Since the
alphabetic characters do not appear with equal frequency in the English language (or any other language), the
answer to part (a) will represent an upper bound on average the alphabetic characters occur with the following
probabilities: P=0.10: for the letters a,e,o,t
P=0.07: for the letters h,I,n,r,s
P=0.02: for the letters c,d,f,l,m,p,u,y
P=0.01: for the letters b,g,j,k,q,v,w,x,z
1 1
Sol: (a) 𝐻 = ∑26
1 26 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 ( 1 ) = 0.1808 × 26 = 4.7 bit/character
26
1 1 1 1
(b) 𝐻 = 4 × 0.1𝑙𝑜𝑔2 ( ) + 5 × 0.07𝑙𝑜𝑔2 ( ) + 8 × 0.02𝑙𝑜𝑔2 ( ) + 9 × 0.01𝑙𝑜𝑔2 ( )
0.1 0.07 0.02 0.01
= 4.17 bit/character.
15
Example 10: Three students at a class are trying to speculation (‫ )يخمن‬a 3-bit binary number. 1st one is told that
the number is even; 2nd one is told that it is not a multiple of 2 (i.e., not 0, 2, 4 or 6); and 3rd one is told that the
number contains exactly two 0's. How much information (in bits) did each player get about the number?
1
Sol: Information 𝐼(𝑠𝑘 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (𝑝 ) = −𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (𝑝𝑘 ).
𝑘
The total number of choices is 8 for a 3-bit number (CBA).

1
1st one is told that the number is even = {000, 010, 100, 110}, so 𝑝𝑘 = 4/8, 𝐼(𝑠𝑘 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 ( ) = 1 𝑏𝑖𝑡.
4/8
1
2nd one is told that it is not a multiple of 2 = {001, 011, 101, 111}, so 𝑝𝑘 = 4/8, 𝐼(𝑠𝑘 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (4/8) = 1 𝑏𝑖𝑡.
1
3rd one is told that the number contains exactly two 0's = {001, 010, 100}, so 𝑝𝑘 = 3/8, 𝐼(𝑠𝑘 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (3/8) =
1.415 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠.
Modulation Techniques in Telecommunication Systems

In telecommunication systems, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of the carrier signal,
with a modulating signal that typically contains information to be transmitted. Modulation techniques are divided
into two parts according to a type of signal that dealing with it; analog modulation and digital modulation.
Table 3. Classifications of modulation techniques in telecommunication systems
AM (amplitude modulation)
Linear DSBSC (double-sideband suppressed-carrier)
Analog SSB (single-sideband modulation)
Modulation VSB (vestigial sideband modulation )
Continuous Non-linear FM (frequency modulation)
Modulation PM (phase modulation)
ASK (amplitude-shift keying)
FSK (frequency-shift keying)
Digital PSK (phase-shift keying)
Modulation DPSK (differential phase-shift keying)
QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation)
MSK (minimum shift keying), etc.
Pulse Analog PAM (pulse-amplitude modulation)
Modulation PDM (pulse-depth modulation)
PPM (pulse-position modulation)
Pulse PCM (pulse-code modulation)
Modulation Pulse Digital DM (∆M) (Delta modulation)
Modulation DPCM (Differential PCM)
ADPCM (Adaptive DPCM)
∑.∆ (Delta-sigma modulation), etc.
16
Pulse Modulation
Pulse modulation schemes allow the narrowband analog signal to be transferred as a digital signal with a fixed
bit rate, which can be transferred over an underlying digital transmission system. To transform an analog
waveform into a form that is compatible with a digital communication, the following steps are taken:
1. Sampling.
2. Quantization.
3. Encoding.
Figure 16 show us the components of A/D converter in digital transmission of analog signals
Figure 16. Components of A/D converter in digital transmission of analog signals

Concept of Sampling
Sampling is defined as, “The process of measuring the instantaneous values of continuous-time signal in a discrete
form.”, or it is the reduction of a continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal.
The sample is a piece of data taken from the whole data which is continuous in the time domain, or it is a value
or set of values at a point in time and/or space.
When a source generates an analog signal and if that has to be digitized, having 1s and 0s i.e., High or Low, the
signal has to be discretized in time. This discretization of the analog signal is called as Sampling. Figure 17
indicates a continuous-time signal 𝑥(𝑡) and a sampled signal 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡). When 𝑥(𝑡) is multiplied by a periodic
impulse train, the sampled signal 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡) is obtained.
17
Figure 17. Signal sampling representation

Sampling Rate: To discretize the signals, the gap between the samples should be fixed. That gap can be termed
as a sampling period 𝑇𝑠 .
𝟏
𝑺𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = = 𝒇𝒔
𝑻𝒔
where, 𝑇𝑠 is the sampling time, and 𝑓𝑠 is the sampling frequency or the sampling rate.
The sampling frequency is the reciprocal of the sampling period. This sampling frequency can be called as the
sampling rate. The sampling rate denotes the number of samples taken per second, or for a finite set of values.
Nyquist Rate: Suppose that a signal is band-limited with no frequency components higher than 𝑓𝑚 Hertz. That
means, 𝑓𝑚 is the highest frequency. For such a signal, for effective reproduction of the original signal, the
sampling rate should be twice the highest frequency.
𝒇𝒔 = 𝟐𝒇𝒎 (This rate of sampling is called as Nyquist rate)
where 𝑓𝑚 is the highest frequency.
Sampling Theorem: It is also called as a Nyquist theorem, delivers the theory of sufficient sample rate in terms
of bandwidth for the class of functions that are bandlimited. The sampling theorem states that “a signal can be
exactly reproduced if it is sampled at the rate 𝑓𝑠 which is greater than twice the maximum frequency 𝑓𝑚 .”
To understand sampling theorem, let us consider a band-limited signal, i.e., a signal whose value is non-zero
between some – 𝑓𝑚 and 𝑓𝑚 Hertz. Such a signal is represented as 𝑥(𝑓) = 0 for |𝑓| > 𝑓𝑚 .
For the signal 𝑥 (𝑡), the band-limited signal in frequency domain, can be represented as shown in Figure 18.
18
Figure 18. Bandlimited signal

If the signal 𝑥(𝑡) is sampled above the Nyquist rate, the original signal can be recovered, and if it is sampled
below the Nyquist rate, the signal cannot be recovered.
Figure 19. The signal sampled at a higher rate than 𝟐𝑓𝑚 in the frequency domain.
Figure 19 shows the Fourier transform of a signal 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡). Here, the information is reproduced without any loss.
There is no mixing up and hence recovery is possible.
Figure 20 show us what happens if the sampling rate is equal to twice the highest frequency (𝑓𝑠 = 2𝑓𝑚 ). The
information is replaced without any loss. Hence, this is also a good sampling rate.
Figure 20. The signal with frequency 𝒇𝒔 = 𝟐𝒇𝒎

Now, let us look at the condition, 𝑓𝑠 ˂2𝑓𝑚 the resultant pattern will look like the Figure 21.
We can observe from the above pattern in Figure 21 that the overlapping of information is done, which leads to
mixing up and loss of information. This unwanted phenomenon of overlapping is called as Aliasing.
Aliasing can be referred to as “the phenomenon of a high-frequency component in the spectrum of a signal, taking
on the identity of a low-frequency component in the spectrum of its sampled version.”
19
The corrective measures taken to reduce the effect of Aliasing are:

 In the transmitter section of PCM, a low pass anti-aliasing filter is employed, before the sampler, to
eliminate the high-frequency components, which are unwanted.
 The signal which is sampled after filtering is sampled at a rate slightly higher than the Nyquist rate.
Figure 21. The signal with frequency 𝒇𝒔 ˂𝟐𝒇𝒎

Concept of Quantization
The method of sampling chooses a few points on the analog signal and then these points are joined to round off
the value to a near stabilized value. Such a process is called as Quantization. Quantizing an Analog Signal: The
analog-to-digital converters perform this type of function to create a series of digital values out of the given analog
signal. The quantizing of an analog signal is done by discretizing the signal with a number of quantization levels.
Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a finite set of levels, which means converting
a continuous amplitude sample into a discrete-time signal. Figure 22 shows how an analog signal gets quantized.
The line (like a stair) represents the quantized signal while another line represents the analog signal.
Figure 22 shows how an analog signal gets quantized

Both sampling and quantization result in the loss of information. The quality of a Quantizer output depends upon
the number of quantization levels used. The discrete amplitudes of the quantized output are called as
20
representation levels or reconstruction levels. The spacing between the two adjacent representation levels is called
a quantum or step-size.
Types of Quantization
There are two types of Quantization - Uniform Quantization and Nonuniform Quantization. The type of
quantization in which the quantization levels are uniformly spaced is termed as a Uniform Quantization. The type
of quantization in which the quantization levels are unequal and mostly the relation between them is logarithmic,
is termed as a Nonuniform Quantization. Figure 23 show the uniform quantization and non-uniform quantization.
Figure 23. The uniform quantization and non-uniform quantization

There are two types of uniform quantization. They are the Mid-Rise type and Mid-Tread type.
 The Mid-Rise type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a raising part of the stair-case like
a graph. The quantization levels in this type are even in number. Figure 24 show that.
 The Mid-tread type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a thread of the stair-case like a
graph. The quantization levels in this type are odd in number. Figure 24 show that.
 Both the mid-rise and mid-tread type of uniform quantizer are symmetric about the origin.
21
Figure 24. The representation of uniform quantization types

Example 11: The information in an analog waveform, with maximum frequency 𝑓𝑚 = 3 kHz, is to be transmitted
over an M-ary PAM system, where the number of pulse levels is M = 16. The quantization distortion is specified
not to exceed ±1% of the peak-to-peak analog signal.
a) What is the minimum number of bits/sample, or bits/PCM word that should be used in digitizing the
analog waveform?
1
We can use the formula ℓ ≥ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2𝑝 bit, to calculate the number of bits per sample.
1
ℓ ≥ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2×0.01 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 50 ≈ 5.6. Therefore, use 6 bits/sample to meet the distortion requirement.
b) What is the minimum required sampling rate, and what is the resulting bit transmission rate?
𝑓𝑠 = 2𝑓𝑚 = 2 × 3000 = 6000 Samples/second.
From part (a), each sample will give rise to a PCM word composed of 6 bits. Therefore, the bit
transmission rate is 𝑅𝑏 = 6 × 𝑓𝑠 = 6 × 6000 = 36000 bps or bits/second.
c) What is the PAM pulse or symbol transmission rate?
Since multilevel pulses are to be used with 𝑀 = 2𝑘 = 16 levels, then 𝑘 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 16 = 4 bits/symbol.
Therefore, the bit stream will be partitioned into groups of 4 bits to form the new 16-level PAM digits,
𝑅𝑏 36000
and the resulting symbol transmission rate 𝑅𝑏 is = = 9000 symbols/second.
𝑘 4
d) If the transmission bandwidth (including filtering) equals 12 kHz, determine the bandwidth efficiency for
this system?
Bandwidth efficiency 𝔶𝑏 is described by data throughput per hertz.
𝑅𝑏 36000𝑏𝑝𝑠
𝔶𝑏 = = = 3 𝑏𝑝𝑠/𝐻𝑧.
𝐵 12000𝐻𝑧
22
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Waveform (Line coding)
Data as well as signals that represents data can either be digital or analog. Line coding is the process of
converting digital data to digital signals. By this technique we converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At
the sender side digital data are encoded into a digital signal and at the receiver side the digital data are recreated
by decoding the digital signal. When pulse modulation is applied to a binary symbol, the resulting binary
waveform is called a pulse code modulation (PCM) waveform. There are several types of PCM waveforms that
are described and illustrated below;
Unipolar NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) signaling: The advantage of this type is to need for one power supply to
generate the signals.
Figure 25. The represent of unipolar NRZ

From Figure 25, in this type of signaling we can represent bit 1 as a high level (+5V) or in low level (-V) and
0 bit in base level. Tb is a time of sending one bit and Ts is the duration of one symbol.
Unipolar RZ (Return-to-Zero) Signaling: in this type of signaling, the signal return to zero after pulse duration
(T) of Tb time (0˂T˂Tb). Figure 26. Show the unipolar RZ. T: pulse duration, and Tb is a time of sending one bit.
Figure 26. The represent of unipolar RZ

Polar NRZ Signaling: The disadvantage of this type is to need for two power supply to generate the signals. In
Figure 27. The representation of bit 1 comes from a high level (+5V) and bit 0 from a low level (-5V), so this
type needs to two signal generators.
23
Figure 27. The represent of polar NRZ

Polar RZ Signaling: in this type of signaling, the signal return to zero after pulse duration (T) of Tb time (0˂T˂Tb).
Bit 1 represents in high level (+5V) and bit 0 represent in low level (-5V). Figure 28. Show the bipolar RZ.
Figure 28. The represent of polar RZ

Bipolar RZ-AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion): The Bipolar RZ-AMI is a signaling scheme used in telephone
systems. The ones are represented by equal-amplitude alternating pulses (+5V) and (-5V). The zeros are
represented by the absence of pulses(base level). This type of signaling needs two power supplies and has three
levels of voltage (+, 0,-) (Pseudo-ternary signaling). Figure 29, show RZ-AMI representation.
Figure 29. The Bipolar RZ-AMI representation

Bipolar NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) signaling: In this type of signaling there are three groups; NRZ-L (L refer
to level), NRZ-M (M refer to mark), and NRZ-S (S refer to space). NRZ-L is used in digital logic circuits. A
24
binary one is represented by one voltage level and a binary zero is represented by another voltage level. There is
a change in level whenever the data change from a one to a zero or from a zero to a one. With NRZ-M, the one,
or mark, is represented by a change in level, and the zero, or space, is represented by no change in level. NRZ-S
is the complemented of NRZ-M: A one is represented by no change in level, and a zero is represented by a change
in level. Figure 30 show all the types NRZ-L, NRZ-M, and NRZ-S.
Figure 30. The waveforms of NRZ-L, NRZ-M, and NRZ-S

Manchester Code: Manchester coding (also known as phase encoding, or PE) is a PCM waveform in which the
encoding of each data bit is either low then high, or high then low, of equal time as shown in Figure 31.
Figure 31. The Manchester Code

Example 12: For the message 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0, draw the waveforms of PCM in term of Bipolar RZ-AMI, with
high-level voltage (+V) and a low-level voltage (-V).
Sol:
25
Example 13: Draw the waveforms of PCM in term of Unipolar RZ, Polar RZ, and Bipolar RZ-AMI for the
message 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 with high-level voltage (+V) and a low-level voltage (-V).
Sol:
Example 14: For the message 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1, draw the waveforms of PCM in term of Unipolar NRZ, Bipolar
NRZ-L, Unipolar RZ, Bipolar RZ-AMI, and Manchester, with high-level (+V) and low-level (-V) voltages.
Sol:
26
Digital Modulation Techniques

Digital Modulation provides more information capacity, high data security, quicker system availability with great
quality communication. Hence, digital modulation techniques have a greater demand, for their capacity to convey
larger amounts of data than analog modulation techniques. There are many types of digital modulation techniques
and also their combinations, depending upon the need.
 Binary: ASK, FSK, PSK, DPSK, and QPSK.
 M-ary: ASK, FSK, PSK, and DPSK.
Binary Amplitude-Shift Keying (BASK)
BASK is a form of amplitude modulation that represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier
wave. In an ASK system, the binary symbol 1 is represented by transmitting a fixed-amplitude carrier wave and
fixed frequency for a bit duration of 𝑇𝑏 seconds. If the signal value is 1 then the carrier signal will be transmitted;
otherwise, a signal value of 0 will be transmitted.
2𝐸𝑏
𝑠1 (𝑡) = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 "1 "
𝑇𝑏
𝑠2 (𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 "0" 0≤𝑡≤𝑇
where 𝑠(𝑡) is the modulated signal, 𝐸𝑏 is transmitted signal energy per bit, 𝑇𝑏 is bit duration.
𝐸𝑏
The average transmitted signal energy is (the two binary symbols must by equiprobable) 𝐸𝑎𝑣 =
2
Binary Frequency Shifted-Keying (BFSK)

FSK is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is transmitted through discrete frequency
changes of a carrier signal. BFSK uses a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information.
With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is called the space frequency.
2𝐸𝑏
𝑠𝑖 (𝑡) = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑖 𝑡) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
𝑇𝑏
27
2𝐸
𝑠1 (𝑡) = √ 𝑇 𝑏 cos(2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 "1" 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑖 = 1
𝑏
2𝐸
𝑠2 (𝑡) = √ 𝑇 𝑏 cos(2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 "0" 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑖 = 2
𝑏
𝑛𝑐 +𝑖
𝑓𝑖 = For some fixed integer 𝑛𝑐 , 𝑖 = 1, 2
𝑇𝑏
Sunde’s BFSK: When the frequencies 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are chosen in such a way that they differ from each other by an
amount equal to the reciprocal of the bit duration 𝑇𝑏 .
Example 15: Draw the Sunde’s BFSK waveform for the input binary sequence 101 for a bit duration 𝑇𝑏 = 1 𝑠.
Sol: If 𝑖 = 1, 𝑛𝑐 = 2 𝑓1 = 3/ 𝑇𝑏 for 𝑠1 (𝑡) "1" and 𝑖 = 2, 𝑛𝑐 = 2 𝑓2 = 4/ 𝑇𝑏 for 𝑠2 (𝑡) "0".
Example 16: Draw the Sunde’s BFSK waveform for the input binary sequence 001101 for a bit duration
𝑇𝑏 = 1 𝑠.
Sol: If 𝑖 = 1, 𝑛𝑐 = 1 𝑓1 = 2/ 𝑇𝑏 for 𝑠1 (𝑡) "0" and 𝑖 = 2, 𝑛𝑐 = 1 𝑓2 = 3/ 𝑇𝑏 for 𝑠2 (𝑡) "1".
28
Generation of BFSK: Figure 32 show the generation of BFSK modulation.
Figure 32. The generation of BFSK
29
Binary Phase-Shift Keying (BPSK)

BPSK (also sometimes called PRK, phase reversal keying, or 2PSK) is the simplest form of phase shift keying
(PSK). It uses two phases which are separated by 180°and so can also be termed 2-PSK. It does not particularly
matter exactly where the constellation points are positioned, and in this figure they are shown on the real axis, at
0°and 180°.
2𝐸
𝑠1 (𝑡) = √ 𝑇 𝑏 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 "1 "
𝑏
2𝐸𝑏 2𝐸𝑏
𝑠2 (𝑡) = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜋) = −√ cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 "0", 0≤𝑡≤𝑇
𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏
BPSK signal space diagram 𝑓𝑐 = 2𝑅𝑏
30
Example 17: BPSK
Example 18: BPSK
31
Generation of BPSK: Figure 33 show the generation of BPSK modulation.
Figure 33. The generation of BPSK

Detection of BPSK: compare to the phase of carrier
Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)

The phase of the modulated signal is shifted relative to the previous signal element. No reference signal is
considered here. The signal phase follows the high or low state of the previous element. This DPSK technique
doesn’t need a reference oscillator. Figure 34 represents the model waveform of DPSK.
Figure 34. The waveform of DPSK

It is seen from Figure 34 that, if the data bit is Low i.e., 0, then the phase of the signal is not reversed, but continued
as it was. If the data is a High i.e., 1, then the phase of the signal is reversed, as with NRZI, invert on 1 (a form
of differential encoding).
32
Generation of DPSK: BDPSK= Differential Code’s BPSK. To draw waveform of BPSK by compared to its own
previous phase.
Example 19: Draw the BDPSK waveform for the input binary sequence 101100?
Sol:
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

QPSK is a variation of BPSK, and it is also a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation scheme,
which sends two bits of digital information at a time, called as bigits. Instead of the conversion of digital bits into
a series of digital stream, it converts them into bit pairs. This decreases the data bit rate to half, which allows
space for the other users. The purpose of QPSK is to increase the bandwidth efficiency.
33
2𝐸 𝜋
𝑠𝑖 (𝑡) = √ cos (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + (2𝑖 − 1) ) , 𝑖 = 1,2,3,4
𝑇 4
2𝐸 𝜋
𝑠1 (𝑡) = √ cos (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ) "𝟏𝟎"
𝑇 4
2𝐸 3𝜋
𝑠2 (𝑡) = √ cos (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ) "𝟎𝟎"
𝑇 4
The signal is 𝑠𝑖 (𝑡): 2𝐸 5𝜋

𝑠3 (𝑡) = √ cos (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ) "𝟎𝟏"
𝑇 4
2𝐸 7𝜋
𝑠4 (𝑡) = √ cos (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ) "𝟏𝟏"
𝑇 4
where 𝐸 is the signal energy per symbol and 𝑇 is the symbol duration.
Constellation diagram for QPSK with Gray coding shown in Fig 35. Each adjacent symbol only differs by 1 bit.
Figure 35. Constellation of

QPSK
34
Generation of QPSK:
The waveform of Demultiplexer is represent in the form below:
Waveform of QPSK: to draw the waveform of QPSK, we can use the table below:
Decimal MSB-LSB for Triangle Value of angle
binary number function
0 00 -cos -sin 135𝑜
1 01 -cos sin 225𝑜
2 10 cos -sin 45𝑜
3 11 cos sin 315𝑜
35
The general form of

QPSK waveform
Example 20: Draw the QPSK waveform for the input binary sequence 011011001001?
Sol:
36
Types of QPSK:
1- Offset QPSK (OQPSK): Offset quadrature phase-shift keying (OQPSK) is a variant of phase-shift keying
modulation using 4 different values of the phase to transmit. It is sometimes called staggered quadrature phase-
shift keying (SQPSK). Taking four values of the phase (2 bits) at a time to construct a QPSK symbol can allow
the phase of the signal to jump by as much as 180°at a time. The phase transitions are limited to 90o, the transitions
on the (I and Q) channels are staggered. This yields much lower amplitude fluctuations than non-offset QPSK
and is sometimes preferred in practice. Figure 36 show the constellation of OQPSK. Signal doesn't cross zero,
because only one bit of the symbol is changed at a time.
Figure 36. Constellation of OQPSK

2- π/4–QPSK: This variant of QPSK uses two identical constellations which are rotated by 45°(π/4 radians,
hence the name) with respect to one another. Usually, either, the even or odd symbols are used to select points
from one of the constellations and the other symbols select points from the other constellation. This also
reduces the phase-shifts from a maximum of 180°, but only to a maximum of 135°and so the amplitude
fluctuations of π/4–QPSK are between OQPSK and non-offset QPSK. In π/4 QPSK the set of constellation
points are toggled each symbol, so transitions through zero cannot occur. This scheme produces the lowest
envelope variations.
Figure 37. Constellation of π/4–QPSK

In Figure 37 show dual constellation diagram for π/4-QPSK. This shows the two separate constellations with
identical Gray coding but rotated by 45°with respect to each other.
37
M-ary Modulation
The word binary represents two bits as discussed earlier. The character 𝑀 represents a digit that corresponds to
the number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible for a given number of binary variables. This is the type
of digital modulation technique used for data transmission in which instead of one bit, two or more bits are
transmitted at a time. If a digital signal is given under four conditions, such as voltage levels, frequencies, phases,
and amplitude, then 𝑀 = 4. The number of bits necessary to produce a given number of conditions is expressed
mathematically as
𝑘 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑀
where 𝑘 is the number of bits necessary
𝑀 is the number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible with 𝑘 bits.
Also, 𝑀 is defines the number of points in the signal constellation. 𝑀 = 2𝑘 , For example, with two bits, 22 = 4
conditions are possible. Modulations which have an order of 4 and above usually are termed as higher-order
modulations. Because existing computers and automation systems are based on binary logic most of the
modulations have an order which is a power of two: 2, 4, 8, 16, etc. In principle, however, the order of a
modulation can be any integer greater than one.
The table below show us the symbol values of 𝑀 for a given value of 𝑘 with type of modulation:
𝒌 𝑴 = 𝟐𝒌 Symbol Type of modulation
1 2 0, 1 BPSK
2 4 00, 01, 10, 11 QPSK
3 8 000. 001, 010, ….. 8-PSK
4 16 0000, 0001, 0010, …… 16-PSK
Depending on the variation of amplitude, phase or frequency of the carrier, the modulation scheme is called as:
M-ary ASK (Amplitude, using different levels), M-ary FSK (Phase, using different levels), and M-ary PSK
(different values of frequency). Figure 38 shown us the waveforms of M-ary modulation types.
Figure 38. The waveforms of M-ary modulation

38
1) M-ray Amplitude Modulation

In multi-level amplitude modulation the amplitude of the transmitted (carrier) signal takes on 𝑀 different levels.
For a group of 𝑘 bits we need 𝑀 = 2𝑘 different amplitude levels. The term symbol refers to a member of the M-
ary alphabet that is transmitted during each symbol duration 𝑇𝑠 . In order to transmit the symbol, it must be mapped
onto an electrical voltage or current waveform. Because the waveform represents the symbol, the term symbol
and waveform are sometimes used interchangeably. Since one of M symbols or waveforms is transmitted during
each symbol duration 𝑇𝑠 , the data rate R is given by:
𝑘 log 2 𝑀
𝑅= = , 𝑅 = 𝑘𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠 log 2 𝑀
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠
The effective duration 𝑇𝑏 of each bit in terms of the symbol duration 𝑇𝑠 or the symbol rate 𝑅𝑠 is:
1 𝑇𝑠 1 𝑅 𝑅
𝑇𝑏 = = = ⟹ 𝑅𝑠 = =
𝑅 𝑘 𝑘𝑅𝑠 𝑘 log 2 𝑀
Suppose the maximum allowed value for the voltage is 𝐴, then all M possible values at baseband are in the
range[−𝐴, 𝐴] and they are given by:
2𝐴
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑖 − 𝐴; where 𝑖 = 0,1, … , 𝑀 − 1
𝑀−1
2𝐴
And the difference between one symbol and another is given by: 𝛿 =
𝑀−1
The signal represented by the function: 𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑖 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡),

Some prominent features of M-ary ASK are:
 This method is also used in PAM.
 Its implementation is simple.
 M-ary ASK is susceptible to noise and distortion.
Example 21: Show how to transmit the message 100110001101010111. Using 8-ary Pulse Amplitude
Modulation. Find the corresponding amplitudes of the transmitted signal and calculate the difference between the
symbols. Given that the maximum amplitude is 4 Volts.
Sol: Since we will be using 8-ary modulation, so the signal must be divided into symbols each of 3 bits, 23 = 8 .
Therefore, the message = 100 110 001 101 010 111
𝑆4 𝑆6 𝑆1 𝑆5 𝑆2 𝑆7
2(4)
𝑣4 = (4) − 4 = 0.5714 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠,
8−1
2(4)
𝑣6 = (6) − 4 = 2.8571 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠,
8−1
2(4)
𝑣1 = (1) − 4 = − 2.8571 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠,
8−1
2(4)
𝑣5 = (5) − 4 = 1.7142 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠,
8−1
39
2(4)
𝑣2 = (2) − 4 = −1.7142 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠,
8−1
2(4)
𝑣7 = (7) − 4 = 4 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠,
8−1
2𝐴 2(4)
Difference between each symbol and another can be calculated as follows: 𝛿 = = = 1.1428 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑀−1 8−1
2) M-ary Phase Shift Keying (M-ary PSK)

2(𝑖−1)𝜋
The phase of the carrier signal takes 𝑀 Possible values namely: 𝜃𝑖 = , where 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑀.
𝑀
During each Sampling interval 𝑇𝑠 . The transmitted signal will have the form:
2𝐸𝑠 2𝜋
𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) = √ cos (𝑤𝑐 𝑡 + (𝑖 − 1)) , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠
𝑇𝑠 𝑀
where 𝐸𝑠 = (log 2 𝑀)𝐸𝑏 is energy per symbol,

𝐸𝑏 is energy per bit,
𝑇𝑠 = (log 2 𝑀)𝑇𝑏 is the symbol period
𝑇𝑏 is the bit period
𝑤𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐
The above equation in the Quadrature form is:
2𝐸𝑠 2𝜋 2𝐸𝑠 2𝜋
𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) = √ cos ( (𝑖 − 1)) cos(𝑤𝑐 𝑡) − √ sin ( (𝑖 − 1)) sin(𝑤𝑐 𝑡)
𝑇𝑠 𝑀 𝑇𝑠 𝑀
2 2
By choosing orthogonal basis signals: 𝜙1 (𝑡) = √ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑐 𝑡), 𝜙2 (𝑡) = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑐 𝑡) defined over the interval
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠
0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠 .
So the M-ary signal set can be expressed as:
40
𝜋 𝜋
𝑆𝑀−𝑃𝑆𝐾 (𝑡) = √𝐸𝑠 cos ( (𝑖 − 1)) 𝜙1 (𝑡) − √𝐸𝑠 sin ( (𝑖 − 1)) 𝜙2 (𝑡)
2 2
From the last formula there are only two basis signals, the constellation of M-ary PSK is two dimensional. The
M-ary message points are equally spaced on a circle of radius √𝐸𝑠 , centered at the origin. The constellation
diagram of an 8-ary PSK signal set (M=8) is shown in Fig, below.
If a symbol (0,0,0) is transmitted, it is clear that if an error occurs, the transmitted signal is most likely to be
mistaken for (0,0,1) and (1,1,1) and the signal being mistaken for (1,1,0) is remote. The decision pertaining to
(0,0,0) is bounded by 𝜃 = −𝜋/8(below ϕ1 (t) − axis) to θ = + π/8 ( above ϕ2 (t) − axis).
Some prominent features of M-ary PSK are:
 The envelope is constant with more phase possibilities.
 This method was used during the early days of space communication.
 Better performance than ASK and FSK.
 Minimal phase estimation error at the receiver.
 The bandwidth efficiency of M-ary PSK decreases and the power efficiency increases with the increase in M.
3) M-ary Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK)

MFSK is a variation of frequency-shift keying (FSK) that uses more than two frequencies. MFSK is a form of M-
ary orthogonal modulation, where each symbol consists of one element from an alphabet of orthogonal waveforms.
In a M-ary signaling system like MFSK, an "alphabet" of M tones is established and the transmitter selects one
tone at a time from the alphabet for transmission. In M-ary FSK modulation the transmitted signals are defined
by:
41
2𝐸𝑠 𝜋
𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) = √ cos ( (𝑛𝑐 + 𝑖)𝑡) , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠
where 𝑓𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐 /2𝑇𝑠 for some fixed integer 𝑛𝑐 .

The M transmitted signals are of equal energy and equal duration, and the signal frequencies are separated by
1/2𝑇𝑠 Hertz, making the signals orthogonal to one another.
Some prominent features of M-ary FSK are:
 Not susceptible to noise as much as ASK.
 The transmitted M number of signals are equal in energy and duration.
 The signals are separated by 1/2𝑇𝑠 Hz making the signals orthogonal to each other.
 Since M signals are orthogonal, there is no crowding in the signal space.
 The bandwidth efficiency of M-ary FSK decreases and the power efficiency increases with the increase in M.
42

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University of Technology Class: 3rd year

Department of ElectroMechanical Engineering Subject: Communications and

Advantages of Digital Communication

Concepts for Basics of Digital Communications

Comparison between digital signals and analog signals:

Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. Digital hardware is flexible in implementation.

Performance of Digital Communication System

Digital Communication Systems 𝑅𝑏 , 𝑅𝐵 , 𝔶𝑏 , 𝔶𝐵 𝑃𝑒𝑏 , 𝑃𝑒𝐵

Communication Systems Models

Figure 2. Analog Passband Communication Systems

Figure 3. Digital Baseband Communication Systems

Figure 4. Digital Passband Communication Systems

Analog A/D Digital Digital D/A Analog

Digital D/A Analog Analog A/D Digital

Figure 6. Analog Transmission of Digital Signals

Transmission Methods in Communication systems

Information in Information out

Figure 8. Half-Duplex Communications

Figure 9. Full Duplex Communications

Figure 10. The FDM technique

Figure 11. Synchronous TDM

Figure 12. How the Synchronous TDM work

Figure 13. Asynchronous TDM

Figure 14. How Asynchronous TDM work

The concept of probability

 Probability cannot be negative, 𝑃(𝐴) ≥ 0.

Information & Entropy

Example 6: The probability of English letter E is 0.105, determine its information.

Example 7: The probability of English letter x is 0.002, determine its information.

If entropy=0, 𝑝𝑘 = 1, for some k.

Maximum Entropy Examples:

Figure 15. Entropy versus probability (two events)

The total number of choices is 8 for a 3-bit number (CBA).

Modulation Techniques in Telecommunication Systems

Figure 16. Components of A/D converter in digital transmission of analog signals

Figure 17. Signal sampling representation

Figure 18. Bandlimited signal

Figure 20. The signal with frequency 𝒇𝒔 = 𝟐𝒇𝒎

The corrective measures taken to reduce the effect of Aliasing are:

Figure 21. The signal with frequency 𝒇𝒔 ˂𝟐𝒇𝒎

Figure 22 shows how an analog signal gets quantized

Figure 23. The uniform quantization and non-uniform quantization

Figure 24. The representation of uniform quantization types

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Waveform (Line coding)

Figure 25. The represent of unipolar NRZ

Figure 26. The represent of unipolar RZ

Figure 27. The represent of polar NRZ

Figure 28. The represent of polar RZ

Figure 29. The Bipolar RZ-AMI representation

Figure 30. The waveforms of NRZ-L, NRZ-M, and NRZ-S

Figure 31. The Manchester Code

Digital Modulation Techniques

Binary Amplitude-Shift Keying (BASK)

𝑠2 (𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 "0" 0≤𝑡≤𝑇

Binary Frequency Shifted-Keying (BFSK)

Sol: If 𝑖 = 1, 𝑛𝑐 = 2 𝑓1 = 3/ 𝑇𝑏 for 𝑠1 (𝑡) "1" and 𝑖 = 2, 𝑛𝑐 = 2 𝑓2 = 4/ 𝑇𝑏 for 𝑠2 (𝑡) "0".

Sol: If 𝑖 = 1, 𝑛𝑐 = 1 𝑓1 = 2/ 𝑇𝑏 for 𝑠1 (𝑡) "0" and 𝑖 = 2, 𝑛𝑐 = 1 𝑓2 = 3/ 𝑇𝑏 for 𝑠2 (𝑡) "1".

Generation of BFSK: Figure 32 show the generation of BFSK modulation.

Figure 32. The generation of BFSK