BASICS OF VOLCANOLOGY

Use ~4 class periods to review basics of volcanology:

• Lecture 1: Physical nature of magmas; Heat sources for

volcanism; Eruptive mechanisms; Lava flows
• Lecture 2: Products of explosive eruptions
• Lecture 3: Classification of volcanoes and eruptions
• Lecture 4: Remote Sensing of Volcanoes
Quick review of terminology and processes
Detailed notes available for copy

1. 1 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 PHYSICAL NATURE OF MAGMAS
Magma
• Completely or partially molten natural substance
• On cooling, solidifies to glassy or crystalline rock
• Usually silica rich, flows under moderate differential stress
• Limited compositional range
• Carries rocks & crystals in suspension, volatiles (gases) in
solution
• Meager knowledge of magma liquid properties
• Study in terms of properties of most abundant components:
Silicon (Si4+) & Oxygen (O2-) ions

1. 2 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 MAGMA COMPONENTS
Silicon
• High charge (Si4+), small ionic radius (0.39 Å), & low
coordination number with oxygen (4)
• Si-O tetrahedron <=> strong ionic field strength and bonding
w/oxygen vs. other cations: Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Ti, Na, or K
• Aluminum (Al3+) has similar (but not as strong) as silicon,
play similar role in solid & liquid silicates
• Understanding physico-chemical properties key to models of
silicate melt structure

1. 3 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 SILICATE MELT STRUCTURE
Silicate liquid structure (Zachariasen model)
• Atoms bonded by similar forces that bond atoms in crystals, but lack long
range symmetry & periodicity
• Basic building block: Si-O & Al-O tetrahedra (Framework cations) that
are linked (polymerized) in 3-D networks where bridging O2- atoms are
shared by multiple tetrahedra
• Framework-modifying cations (FMC): Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Ti, Na, K. They
occupy spaces between tetrahedra, modifying framework & physical
properties
• Linked Si-O, Al-O tetrahedra form basis of melt structure
• FMC contents >20% breakdown framework into smaller geometric units
(lower Si:O ratios)
• FMC contents >66% result in silicate liquid of unlinked tetrahedra
• Melt structure controls physical properties
1. 4 Physical Nature of Magmas
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 VISCOSITY I
Viscosity: most important physical property of magma
• Influences both style of eruption & nature of volcanic products
• Viscosity = Fluid’s internal resistence to flow
n
s = s0 + η  
dm
 dt 
• S = total shear stress parallel to direction of deformation
• S0 = yield strength of fluid required to initiate flow
¥ η = viscosity (SI: Pa s; cgs: poise; 1 Pa s = 10 poise)
• dm/dt = strain rate normal to direction of shear
• n = 1 or less
For most fluids, the relationship between stress & strain leads:
• Deformation that is elastic & recoverable, or
• Deformation that is viscous & non-recoverable
1. 5 Physical Nature of Magmas
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 VISCOSITY II
For geologic fluids (magmas):
• Permanent deformation results from shear stress parallel to direction of
shear
♦ If no initial force is required for deformation, fluid exhibits Newtonian behavior
(n = 1, s0 = 0)
♦ If an initial force is required for deformation, i.e., yield strength must be
exceeded before deformation occurs, then fluid exhibits Bingham behavior (n ≤
1, s0 ≠ 0)
• Magmas behave as Newtonian fluids until they contain ~20% crystals, then
behave as Bingham fluids
Controls on Viscosity
• Most important is composition (silica content: cornstarch-in-gravy analogy )
♦ More Si-O, Al-O tetrahedra, higher silica content, higher viscosity => pasty
flows
♦ Lower silica content, lower viscosity => fluid flows

1. 6 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 TERRESTRIAL MAGMA COMPOSITIONS
Komatiite Basalt Andesite Rhyolite
SiO2 47.9 50.9 58.9 73.7
TiO2 0.4 1.7 0.9 0.2
Al2O3 4.1 14.6 17.1 14.3
FeO 9.7 14.6 6.2 2.1
MgO 27.5 4.8 3.8 0.3
CaO 7.5 8.7 5.3 1.4
Na2O 0.2 3.1 4.3 5.2
K2O 0.02 0.8 1.2 4.1

Tliq(˚C) ~1600 ~1200 ~1000 ~900

1. 7 Physical Nature of Magmas
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 TERRESTRIAL MAGMA VISCOSITIES
Substance Dynamic Viscosity (Pa s)
Water 0.001 (@ 25˚C)
Komatiite Lava (29%MgO) 0.052 (@ 1578˚C)
Olive Oil 0.082 (@ 20˚C)
Carbonatite Lava 0.3-5 (@ 593˚C)
Mayonnaise 100. (@ 20˚C)
Basalt Lava 160. (@ 1150˚C)
Creamy Peanut Butter 500. (@ 20˚C)
Andesite Lava 1,000. (@ 1150˚C)
Rhyolite Lava 10,000,000. (@ 1150˚C)
1. 8 Physical Nature of Magmas
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 CONTROLS ON VISCOSITY I
• Composition
♦ Viscosity increases with increasing silica content (increase in
proportion of silica tetrahedra => strong Si-O bonds)
• Temperature
♦ Viscosity decreases with increasing temperature (increase in distance
between cations & anions => weaken bond strength)
• Volatile Content
♦ Viscosity decreases with increasing water content (dissolved water
disrupts framework; less important in basic melts)
♦ Gas solubility increase w/pressure, decrease w/temperature
♦ CO2 increases viscosity by forming CO32- complexes
Magma T(˚C) ηdry (p) ηwet (p)
Rhyolite (70% SiO2) 785 1012 106 (5% H20)
Andesite (58% SiO2) 1000 104 103.5 (4% H20)
Basalt (48% SiO2) 1250 102 102 (4% H20)
1. 9 Physical Nature of Magmas
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 TERRESTRIAL VOLATILE CONTENTS

• Volatiles are gases dissolved in magma

• Typically H2O, CO2, CO, SO2, H2S, F, Cl, S
• Gas solubility varies with pressure, temperature, and
magma/volatile composition
• Dissolved water lowers viscosity (more so for Si-rich
magmas)
• As magma rises pressure decreases, and dissolved volatiles
may exsolve
• Volatile exsolution may lead to higher pressures, explosive
fragmentation, and pyroclastic eruptions
(e.g., Mt. St. Helens 1980)
1. 10 Physical Nature of Magmas
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 CONTROLS ON VISCOSITY II
• Crystal Content
♦ Viscosity increases with increasing content of suspended crystals to
increase effective or bulk viscosity:
♦ Roscoe-Einstein Equation, for volume fraction of crystals <30%:

ηb = η0 (1 − 1.67 X ) −2.5
♦ Pinkerton & Stevenson equation, for volume fraction of crystals
>30%:
  X  0.48  X 
ηb = η0 exp 2.5 +  0.6 
 − 
 0 .6 X  
• Pressure
♦ Viscosity decreases with increasing pressure at superliquidus
temperatures
• Bubble Content
♦ Generally viscosity increases with exsolution of water
1. 11 Physical Nature of Magmas
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 OTHER PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MAGMAS
• Yield Strength
♦ Increases for magmas below their liquidi (harder to flow)
• Specific Heat (J/kg ˚C)
♦ Heat required to raise temperature of 1 gram by 1˚C
♦ Decreases with increasing silica content
• Heat of Fusion or Crystallization (J/kg)
♦ Heat added to melt (or removed to crystallize) a unit mass
♦ Decreases with increasing silica content, T-dependent also
• Thermal Conductivity (J/m s ˚C)
♦ Rate of heat transfer from molecule to molecule , T-dependent
♦ Generally very low for igneous rocks and liquids
• Density (kg/m3)
♦ Increases with decreasing silica content, decreases with increasing
temperature and gas content
1. 12 Physical Nature of Magmas
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 HEAT SOURCES FOR VOLCANISM
Where does the heat come from that drives volcanism?
• Accretional Heat
♦ Gravitational collapse of gas & dust transforms potential energy into kinetic &
thermal energy, + collisional & compressive heating
• Convective Overturn (Iron Catastrophe)
♦ Heterogeneously accreted planet undergoes differentiation, in which high
density material sinks, releasing potential energy; +2000˚C rise
• Radiogenic Heat
♦ Decay of radioactive isotopes - longest lasting source of heat that drives
today’s volcanism
• Tidal Heat
♦ Tidal stress on ancient Earth from the Sun & Moon thought to induce
resonance between core & mantle, generating hot mantle plumes at 3.8 Ga,
3.0 Ga, 1.8 Ga, and 300 Ma (Greff-Lefftz & Legros, 1999)
♦ Tidal stress on Europa & Io from Jupiter & Ganymede, Callisto thought to be
source of volcanism
1. 13 Physical Nature of Magmas
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 ERUPTIVE MECHANISMS I
Generation of Magma
• Rocks melts along grain (crystal) boundaries, lowest melting temperature
minerals first (Bowen’s Reaction Series)
• Lower density melt accumulates in fractures & pores until mass
sufficiently large and buoyant to initiate ascent
• Magma rises diapirically through ductile lithosphere/ asthenosphere
• When magma density = rock density in brittle lithosphere, magma is
neutrally buoyant, and accumulates in magma chambers
• Increasing magma mass causes increasing pressure in magma chamber,
inducing dike propagation along weak point in brittle lithosphere
• When pressure is sufficient, magma reaches the surface

1. 14 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 ERUPTIVE MECHANISMS II
Opening of Vents
• Slowly rising magma propagates planes of dilation (fractures) in overlying
country rock
• Appearance of lava usually preceded by release of steam
• Magma eruption is either explosive or effusive
Eruptive behavior influenced by:
• Strength, porosity, and water content of near-surface rocks
• Shape & dimensions of vent (e.g., point vs. fissure)
• Physical properties of magma
Explosive events usually not singular, but are an erratic succession
of surges

1. 15 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 ERUPTIVE MECHANISMS III
Magma must be hot enough to remain fluid to penetrate overlying
barrier of cold rocks & groundwater:
• Requires minimum conduit width & flow rate within feeder dikes
• Final ascent of magma neither sudden nor violent, but a steady process
that accelerates at the surface due to:
♦ Reduced resistance to flow
♦ Reduced density due to expansion & vesiculation
♦ Reduced heat loss to surrounding rocks
♦ Increased temperature from shear heating adjacent to dike walls

Spacing & duration of eruptions controlled by rates of stress

accumulation in lithosphere
Eruptions cease due to a reduction in pressure, not a lack of magma

1. 16 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIVE MECHANISMS
All explosive eruptions involve sudden release of energy by gas under
pressure. Explosivity determined by:
• Rate of gas expansion
• Manner in which expansion occurs
♦ Magma viscosity
♦ Degree & style of vesiculation and amount of volatiles

Initial eruptions after period of repose usually gas-rich

• Once a magma becomes saturated, it rises to a level where overlying rock
pressures are low enough to permit vesiculation
• Gas expansion accelerates rise of magma
• Reduced lithostatic pressure causes increased exsolution: second boiling
• Vesiculation also initiated by
♦ Convective overturn
♦ Injection of hot magma (T increase, Solg decrease)

1. 17 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF
EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS
A variety of interacting factors affect the nature of explosive eruptions
• Temperature relations
• Density relations
• Viscosity relations
• Nature of bubble nucleation and growth

Principal factor controlling violence of explosive eruptions is magnitude of residual

gas phase when magma approaches surface. 4 pressures:
• Pressure of overlying magma column
• Pressure required to drive magma through conduit
• Pressure required to overcome surface tension
• Pressure required for bubble to expand against viscous resistance of
surrounding liquid

1. 18 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 EJECTION OF PYROCLASTIC MATERIAL
The ability of an eruption column to carry & eject rock fragments is
determined by column density
• Ejecta may include
♦ Primary material derived from magma (part of moving gas stream)
♦ Lithic fragments from conduit wall (accelerated from rest)
• Muzzle velocity of ejecta depends on size & settling velocity of fragments
in gas stream
• Ejection velocity = velocity of gas stream - settling velocity of frag.
v 2 sin 2φ v 2 sin 2 φ
x= z=
g 2g
• Typically, f ~ 80˚. Velocities actually lower due to air resistance
• For a given velocity, large blocks travel farther than smaller ones
• Estimated ejection velocities ~500-600 m/s (Plinian eruptions)
• Hawaiian, strombolian, vulcanian fountains have much lower velocities

1. 19 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 EJECTION OF PYROCLASTIC MATERIAL II
Gas-thrust & convection control ejection velocities
• Currents may carry fine dust to great heights
• Height of eruption cloud related to:
♦ Vent radius
♦ Gas velocity (i.e., momentum of gas-thrust)
♦ Gas content
♦ Efficiency of thermal energy conversion to potential/kinetic energy
• Large eruptions that reach high altitudes produced by large eruptions of
particulate material
• Eruption energy is a summation of:
♦ Heat contained in solid & fluid products
♦ Heat & mechanical energy required to heat subsurface rocks & vaporize
groundwater
♦ Mechanical energy expended by magma & gas expansion
♦ Work done against gravity during ascent of magma

1. 20 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 LAVA FLOWS I
Lava flows: the products of extrusion of a magma body onto a
planetary surface
• External forms & internal structures result from:
♦ Physical properties of the magma
H Viscosity = f(Temperature, Composition)
H Rate of magma supply
♦ Environment of Extrusion
H Steepness of Ground Slope
H Presence or Absence of Atmosphere, Water, or Ice
• Basalts: Most abundant and most voluminous
• Ultrabasic flows: rare; Acidic flows abundance decreases w/increasing
viscosity and silica content
• Volumes of most historic flows: 10ths-100ths km3
• Silicic flows rarely exceed 1 km3

1. 21 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 LAVA FLOWS II
Largest known lava flows
• 1783 Laki basalt flow (Iceland): ~5 m thick, ~80 km long, ~12.1 km3
• Pomona member, CRBG (Washington): 30-50 m thick, ~600 km long,
~760 km3
Flow lengths and thicknesses
• Viscous silicic lavas tend to be short & thick
• Most often, repeated gushes of liquid into intertonguing layers (flow units)
• Subaqueous flows tend to remain fluid longer than subaerial
♦ Suppression of volatile exsolution w/water depth
• Flow length determined largely by effusion rate
♦ Basalt flows: m to 10s m thick, 10s to 100s km long
♦ Andesite flows: ≤30 m thick, 5-15 km long
♦ Rhyolite flows: Very thick, <1-2 km long, short & stubby

1. 22 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 LAVA FLOWS III
Flow Velocities
• Depend upon effusion rate, magma volume, viscosity, density, slope
• Flow velocity decreases with distance from vent
• Fastest-moving parts of flow away from crusts, channel walls
• Hawaii: 30-60 km/hr (8-17 m/s); Silicic lavas: 10s to 100s m/hr
Discharge Rates
• Depend upon viscosity, size & shape of conduit
• Basalts: 75,000-1,250 m3/s (1947 Hekla); 5 million m3/hr (1887 Mauna
Loa)
• Discharge rates generally lower for more silicic lavas
♦ Santorini: 45,000 m3/s
♦ Sakurajima: 1,666 m3/s

1. 23 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 LAVA FLOWS IV
Temperatures & Cooling
• Most modern lavas erupted below their liquidi
• Most lavas cool slowly (low kl, high cl) & are well insulated
• Subaerial flows dominated by radiative heat loss
Q = εσT 4
• Subaqueous flows dominated by convective heat loss to water
4
Q = Cf T 3
• All flows loose heat by conduction into substrate
kl (T − Ta )
Q=
πκ l t
• If lava temperature > ground melting temperature, melting and removal of
substrate (thermal erosion) may occur

1. 24 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 LAVA FLOWS V
Flow Morphologies
• Pahoehoe (smooth, ropy, billowy, or entrail-like)
• ‘A’a (rough, clinkery, spinose, small chips and blocks)
• Block (angular blocks, smoother faces & more angular than ‘a’a)
• Pillow (subaqueous only; bulbous, spherical to oblong)
Pahoehoe subtypes
• Massive: Thick crusts 3-15 m thick
• Scaly: Small, overlapping lobes (pahoehoe toes), <30 cm thick
• Shelly: Spinose, sharkskin-like or wrinkled surface
• Slabby: Broken crusts, ~few m across, ~few cm thick
• These lava types can form a variety of small-scale surface structures,
depending upon lava viscosity

1. 25 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 LAVA FLOWS VI
Pahoehoe External Structures
• Lava Coil (shearing between moving and stationary fragments)
• Lava Blister (mound produced by gas accumulation beneath crust)
• Tumulus (dome-like feature from buildup of lava under thick crust)
• Pressure Ridges (crust pushed up against obstacle by underlying flow)
• Hornitoes & Spatter Cones (mounds or spires formed by locally explosive
eruptions)
• Lava Tree Molds & Casts (lava flows around obstacles)
Pahoehoe Internal Structures
• Flow Units (intertonguing lava streams from the same flow)
• Columnar Jointing (thermal contraction fractures, polygonal X-section)
• Lava Tubes (confined interior conduits, cm-30 m diam, km-10s km long)
• Pipe Vesicles (small tubes of gas bubbles)

1. 26 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 LAVA FLOWS VII
Like a caterpillar tread, central massive part, fragmental tops &
bottoms
‘A’a Subtypes
• Rubble flow (small, loose, semi-detached fragments)
• Clinker flow (large (>5cm), loose, semi-detached fragments)
• Furrowed flow (intermediate between aa and pahoehoe)
‘A’a External Structures
• Lava Gutters (open channels left after draining of faster moving parts)
• Lava Levees (longitudinal ridges develop by lava accretion on sides of lava
channel)
• Lava Lobes (lava tongues that breach levees)
• Accretionary Lava Balls (lava balls that build by rolling)
Pahoehoe flows often tranform into ‘a’a downstream
1. 27 Physical Nature of Magmas
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 LAVA FLOWS VIII

Block Lava
• Surfaces covered by angular fragments, more regular form, smoother than
‘a’a
• Form from more viscous lava than ‘a’a; thicker (8-35 m); greater proportion
made up of fragmental material
• Irregular surfaces w/ hummocks & hollows - 3-5 m deep
Block Internal Structures
• Ramp Structures (bent up sheets of solidified lava)
• Lamination (bent up flow or shear planes into antiforms or synforms)
• Spines (massive central part of flow thrust up into fragmental part)
• Auto-Breccia (shattering of very viscous lava due to flow stress)

1. 28 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 LAVA FLOWS IX
Pillow Lava
• Subaqueously-extruded lava marked by bulbous forms
• Form from lava discharge into rivers, lakes, ponds, under glaciers, or oceans
• Form by protrusion of elongate lava lobes, detach & fall down slope
Features
• Pillows rimmed by chilled glass selvedges (formed by rapid cooling)
• Few cm to several m diameter, spheroidal, ellipsoidal, or flattened
• Tops convex upward; bottoms flat or concave upward or project downward
between underlying pillows
• Gas cavities usually occur in upper parts of pillows
Pillows often found with:
• Hyaloclastites: Broken pieces of glass from chilling of lava
• Pillow Breccia: Larger pillows fragments

1. 29 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 VOLCANIC DOMES
Very viscous lava tends to pile up near vent, forming domes
• Domes that grow by repeated extrusions of lava are exogenous
• Domes that grow by injection of lava under a crust are endogenous
• Most domes are composed of rhyolite, dacite, or trachyte magma; andesite
domes are less common, basalt domes are extremely rare
• Large variation in size: meters to 1 km diam; 1 m to 600 m high
• Circular to ovoid in plan view; elongate only in fissure eruptions
• Often short-lived features
External Features
• Subsidiary flows (Lava flows down ruptures in sides of dome)
• Crumble Breccias (Accumulation of fallen crustal blocks at edge of dome)
• Spines (Large squeeze-ups of viscous lava from ruptures in crust)
• Coronet Explosions (Gas explosions around zones of weakness at base)

1. 30 Physical Nature of Magmas

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 LARGE IGNEOUS PROVINCES (LIPs)
Regions of large-volumes of basaltic rock. 3 main types:
• Continental flood basalts (Columbia River Basalts, Deccan Traps)
• Oceanic plateaus (Ontong Java, Kerguelen)
• Volcanic passive margins (Red Sea-Yemen, Rajmahal basalts)
• Also may include submarine ridges, seamount groups, & ocean basin flood
basalts
Source
• Mantle plume activity, possibly associated with initiation of plate rifting
Examples
• Columbia River flood basalts <-> Yellowstone hotspot
• Parana-Etendeka flood basats <-> Tristan hotspot
Emplacement style
• Rapid -> fast-moving flows (turbulent?)
• Slow -> compound pahoehoe flows (inflation?)
1. 31 Physical Nature of Magmas
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