GRADUATE STUDIES DIRECTORATE

ASSESSMENT OF FEED RESOURCES, SEASONALITY, UTILIZATION

PRACTICES, FEED RELATED PROBLEMS AND COPING STRATEGIES
IN BENA TSEMAY DISTRICT, SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA

MSc, THESIS

TEREFE TEKLE WOLDESILASSIE

JINKA ETHIOPIA
DECEMBER, 2023
 ABSTRACT

A cross-sectional study was conducted at Bena-Tsemay district of South Omo zone with the aim
of assessing of available feed resources, seasonality, utilization practice, feed related problems
and its coping mechanisms and evaluation of chemical compositions of selected feeds. A total of
196 respondents were selected from six kebeles by using multistage and random sampling
procedures. Questionnaire survey, focus group discussions and field observations were employed
to generate data. Descriptive statistics such as mean, percentage, and frequency distribution were
used to present the results and also independent sample t-test and chi-square employed to
describe statistical significance. Natural pasture, fodder trees, crop residues and improved forage
species the feed types identified from both agro-ecologies. Natural pasture was first ranked and
fodder trees were the second ranked feed sources. Crop residues were third ranked feed source
and most dominant crop residues were maize stover and teff straw. Natural pasture and private
grazing-land are more available feeds during the months of March to November and less
available during December to February which are dry months of the season whereas fodder trees
were available all-round the year. The free grazing, tethering and cut and carry system, are
important livestock feed utilization practices. The current study indicated that the majority of
respondents (81.12%) stored crop- residues by stacking in a house. Majority of respondents
(89%) were practicing weed control as a grazing land management strategy. Total dry matter
yields of 11.1 to 17.6 kg/tree and 1.6 to 3.6 kg/shrub were recorded in the midland while in the
lowland less (9.4 to 21.9 kg/tree) and (1.5 to 2.6kg/shrub) dry biomass yields of fodder trees and
shrubs obtained. The chemical composition analysis has shown that the ash content was ranged
from (3% to 17.7%), CP (3.4% to 33.7%), NDF (30.6% to 72.6%), ADF (27.7% to 42.07%) and
ADL (1.58% to 18.2%) respectively. In general, largest feed is contributed from natural pasture
and indigenous fodder tree species, while lower contribution is from improved forages. The
drought, overgrazing, expansion of cropping-land and shortage of land were the major feed
related problems whereas using browse tree species, feed purchase, mobility and destocking
were top ranked feed scarcity mitigation strategies. There is a need for improved feed resources
and management practices to enhance livestock productivity in the study district. It is crucial to
address these issues through enhancing the productivity of available feed resources.
Key words: Available Feed, Benatsemay district, Chemical Composition, Utilization practice

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 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the study

Ethiopia has the largest livestock populations in Africa (CSA, 2021). Livestock provide a variety
of benefits for boosting the economy, ensuring food security, poverty reduction and used as social
status. In addition livestock have a significant role in generating export revenue in form of live
animals, hides and skins (FAO, 2009).

Livestock is one of the major building blocks of the agriculture sector which takes part in a
potential pathway out of poverty for many smallholders in Ethiopia (Lijalem et al., 2015). It
generates 15–17% of the country's GDP and more than 50% of household income (Samson and
Frehiwot, 2014). However, the overall productive and reproductive of livestock industry in
Ethiopia are generally low due to various factors (Shapro et al., 2017; FAO, 2018). Feed resource
availability is influenced by seasonal fluctuation of rainfall. In some areas, feed is available
relatively in higher quantity and better quality during the rainy season and early dry season
compared to the long dry season (Kassahun, 2016). Poor feed quality and inadequate feed supply
is the other most important problem affecting the livestock productivity in Ethiopia (FAO, 2018).
Livestock feed resources in Ethiopia are mainly natural and improved pastures, crop residues,
forage crops, agro-industrial by-products and non-conventional feeds (CSA, 2021).

From these natural pastures comprise the largest feed resources, the contribution of which is
estimated at 80-85 % in Ethiopia (Emana, et al., 2017). However, its productivity in most parts of
Ethiopia is extremely low due to seasonal fluctuation of rainfall and poor grazing land
management and conversion of grazing land in to crop lands because of increased human
population (Kebede, 2016; Nigus, 2017). The current feed source such as natural pasture and crop
residues are characterized as poor quality in terms of nutrients and minerals (Tolera et al., 2012;
FAO, 2018).

According to Olafadehan and Adewumi (2009), a major constraint to livestock production in

developing countries is the scarcity and fluctuating quantity and quality of the year-round feed
supply. As a result of this the productivity of ruminant livestock in the tropics and subtropics is
limited by inadequacy of good quality and nutritive feed (Olafadehan and Adewumi, 2009).

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Browse fodders are useful sources of cheap feed for ruminant animals in developing countries,
especially during dry seasons when herbaceous pasture grasses and legumes are scarce
(Olafadehan and Okunade, 2018). The ability of their foliage to remain green and maintain their
protein content makes them potential sources of protein and energy (Olafadehan, 2013). It has
been reported that information on nutritional characterization of locally available feed resources
in Ethiopia is inadequately addressed and where available the values are variably documented
(Zinash and Seyoum, 1998).

1.1. Statement of the Problem

South Omo zone is known for its high livestock population and (CSA, 2017) and husbandry is
considered primarily as the main source of income followed to crop production. Despite of this,
the impact of feed shortage is also more pronounced in areas with large concentrations of
livestock (Nassoro, 2014). In South Omo zone, the livestock production is mainly natural
pasture-based and it is the major type of feed source (54.54%) followed by crops residue that is
31.13%. Hay and by-products are also used as animal feeds that comprise about 7.35% and 2.03%
of the total feeds and improved feed (only 0.57%) is used as animal feed and other types of feed
that accounted for about 4.37% also used (CSA, 2021). In some areas of South Omo zone,
majority of pastoralists use communal grazing land for cattle keeping in both season and natural
browsing trees and shrubs in the area were available (Demerew et al., 2021). The productivity
produced from this feed resources is significantly declining due to prolonged droughts, fuel wood
harvesting, and ever-increasing deforestation for crop-production and encroachment of invasive
species and bushes (Admasu et al, 2010; Worku and Nigatu, 2015).

In Bena-Tsemay district, livestock production is one of the most important and integral
component of agro-pastoral livelihood activities. However, there is no detail and area specific
information in regarding the available feed resources, seasonality, utilization practices, feed
related problems and copping strategy and nutritional values of feeds and the information from
the current study would enable police makers and farmers to design appropriate intervention
strategies. Therefore, better understanding of the seasonal availability of feed resources; feeding
practices and chemical composition of selected most dominant feed resources and also knowledge
of feed related problems and farmers copping strategies could contribute to highlight potential
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gaps for quality improvement and proper utilization of the available feeds for livestock
productivity improvement.

1.2.Objectives

1.2.1. General objective

 To Assess Feed Resources, seasonality, utilization practice, feed related problems and
copping strategies in Bena Tsemay District, Southern Ethiopia

1.2.2. Specific objectives

 To assess available feed resources and seasonality of feed in study district.

 To evaluate feed utilization practices in study district,

 To evaluate the chemical compositions of selected feedstuffs in study district.

 To identify feed related problems and farmers coping strategies in the study district.

1.3.Significance of the Study

Generating data on available feed resources, seasonality, feeding practices, chemical composition
of feeds and feed shortage mitigation strategies in the current study area can serve as to identify
the feed resources which are currently in use, utilization practice and to identify the most limiting
nutrients to formulate appropriate intervention strategies to improve livestock productivity.
Findings in this study can serve as baseline information and used as reference material for future
work related to availability and the nutritive value of feed resources commonly fed to livestock in
Bena-tsemay district. Generated report is also be important for policy makers, different
governmental and non-governmental organizations working on livestock sector

1.4. Scope of the Study

The current study focuses on assessment of available feed resources, seasonality of feeds,
utilization practices, feed shortage mitigation strategies and evaluation of chemical composition
of selected feeds in Bena-Tsemay district of South Omo zone, Southern Ethiopia. The assessment
of available feed resource and feeding practice is importance for future researchers and

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stakeholders. The evaluation of chemical composition was done in terms of dry matter, crude
protein, ash/minerals, acid detergent lignin, acid detergent fiber and neutral detergent fiber.

1.5.Limitation of the Study

The study covers one woreda of South omo zone and six kebele from that woreda were included.
Limited number of samples was taken for nutritional analysis; hence further effort is required to
undertake the nutritional values of feed and their effect on livestock production and productivity.

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 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Description of the Study Areas

The study was conducted in Bena-Tseamy district of South Omo Zone. The district is situated
between 5°01’ and 5°73’ North latitude and 36°38’ and 37°07’ East longitude in the Southern
Ethiopia. Total area of the district is 301,198hr. The district is characterized by semi-arid and arid
climatic conditions, with mean annual rainfall averaging from 350-838 mm in bimodal
distribution with the long rainy season from March to June while the small rains between
September and October with an ambient temperature ranging from 26-35º C (Mulugeta and
Getahun, 2002). The lower altitude ranges from (500–600 m.a.s.l.) is inhabited by the Tsemay
ethnic group, while mid altitude ranges from (1200–1500 m a.s.l.) is predominantly inhabited by
the Benna ethnic group.

The vegetation of the study area is dominated by varying densities of Acacia, Grewia, and
Solanum woody species (Admasu et al, 2010; Hidosa et al., 2020). The dominant type of land-use
is agro-pastoralism (Birhanu et al., 2017; Hidosa et al., 2020) and more than 48% of the total land
area of the district is used for grazing and browsing by cattle and goats, respectively (Admasu et
al., 2010). Depending on the agro ecologies, the agro-pastoralists in the study district are
practicing rain fed agriculture. Sorghum, maize, millet, bean, wheat, barley, and vegetables are
the major crops grown in the study area (Admasu et al., 2010). The Bena ethnic group, who live
in the higher altitude of Bena-Tsemay district are engaged more in crop production than the other
pastoral groups because of the favorable climatic condition and whereas, the Tsemay pastoralists
living in the lower altitude area of Bena-Tsemay district depend more on livestock production
because of the unfavorable climatic condition for crop production (Admasu et al, 2010).
According to the census of the CSA, (2017) the total estimated human population of the Bena-
Tsemay district was about 86, 691 of which 44,591 male and 42,100 are females and whereas, the
population of livestock are estimated to be 525,941 cattle, 211,818 sheep, 910, 252 goats, 235,
363 Poultry and 36, 387 donkeys.

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 Figure 1. Map of study area

3.2. Study Design, Sampling Procedures and Sample Size Determination

The study district, Bena-tsemay, was selected based on its livestock production potential. There is
also no specific documented information about available feed resources and nutritive values in the
district. A cross-sectional study design was employed by using multistage sampling procedure to
select study Kebeles and respondent households. In the first stage the district was stratified into
two based on agro ecology as midland (1200-1500 m.a.s) and lowland (500-600 m.a.s). The total
kebeles in midland and lowland agro-ecology were 18 and 16 respectively. According to area
coverage lowland covers 86% of total land and midland covers only 14%. But the human

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population and the number of kebeles were higher in midland agro-ecology because of favorable
climatic condition for crop and livestock production. In the second stage, a purposive sampling
technique was employed to select the study Kebeles from each agro ecology based on the
livestock production and feed resource potential. Accordingly, three kebeles from midland and
three kebeles from lowland agro-ecology were selected. According to this, Kako, Challi and
Goldiya kebeles from midland, and Alduba, Sille and Boori kebeles from lowland, were selected.
In the third stage, the respondent households from each kebele were selected randomly. The total
sample size for household interview was determined using probability proportional to size
(Cochran, 1977).
According to this, 104 respondents from midland and 92 respondents from lowland agro-ecology
were selected to face to face interview.

( )( )

Where: Z – normal standard deviation.

p-is estimated proportion of the population which has the attribute in question, which is 15% =
0.15
q= 1-p, which is 1-0.15 = 0.85
e - Is the desired level of precision, (95% CI= 0.05)
Assuming a precision level of 5% and confidence interval of 95%, a total of 196 households were
selected by a simple random sampling technique for interview.
3.3. Data Collection Methods
Questionnaire survey, focus group discussions (FGD) and field observation were used to collect
data. Structured questionnaire was prepared and used to collect the primary data on household
characteristics, livestock and landholdings, feed resource availability and seasonality, feeding and
conservation practices, and feed production constraints, opportunities and feed shortage
mitigation strategies. In order to support the data from survey, the FGDs were held with groups of
12 farmers who have better experience in livestock and feed production. Check-lists, about
livestock feed resource, feed resource availability, feed conservation and utilization practices,
major livestock feed production constraints and opportunities was prepared and used during the
focus group discussion. The field observation was made by the researcher to enrich the data about

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livestock feed available and grazing land conditions and management of grazing land were
monitored and observed during their field data collections. The secondary data on livestock
population, feed resource and feed resource availability were collected from district Livestock and
Fisher Resource development Office.

3.4. Dry Matter Yield Estimation of Natural Pasture and Crop Residues

The total amount of DM available from natural pastures in the study area was determined by
multiplying the average value of grazing land holding with the per hectare DM output of the
natural pasture with the conversion factor of 2 tDM/ha/year (FAO, 1987).

The quantity of available crop residues (DM basis) was estimated from the total crop yields of the
households, which was obtained from questionnaire survey, according to FAO (1987) conversion
factor for the Ethiopian condition. Conversion factors are 1.5 for barley, wheat, teff, oats; 2 for
maize, 1.2 for pulse and oil crop straws and 2.5 for sorghum. Quantities of available DM in
fodder trees were determined by multiplying the available land by the conversion factors of 0.7
(FAO, 1987).

3.6. Estimation of Biomass Yield of Fodder Trees and Shrubs

The identified shrubs and trees potential fodder yield was estimated by measuring stem
circumference using measuring tape and using the equation of Petmak (1983). Accordingly, leaf
yield of fodder trees was estimated by allometric equation of log W = 2.24log DT-1.50. Where,
W = leaf yield in kilograms of dry weight and DT is trunk diameter (cm) at 130 cm height. Trunk
diameter (DT) was calculated by: DT = 0.636C; where C = circumference. For the leaf yield of a
shrub, the allometric equation is log W = 2.62log DS - 2.46. Where DS is stem diameter in cm at
30 cm height.

2.2. Feed Sample Collection and Chemical Analysis

Respondent households were asked to rank feed resources of the area using ranking scores and the
four top ranked feeds from each Agro ecology were selected for chemical analysis. The sampled
feeds prepared and transported to Jinka Agricultural Research Center (JARC) nutrition laboratory
and grinded sealed in plastic air tight bag pending for chemical analysis. The sample from natural
pasture was collected by using plate meter 1mx1m and cutting at 2cm above the ground and

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sample from fodder tree species, crop residues and improved forage were collected from each
kebeles of two agro-ecologies and combined with its type and sub-sample were taken for
chemical analysis. The collected green feed samples were weighted soon after collection to
determine the fresh weight and partially dried at 65oC for 72hrs and bulked per feed- type
separately. The determination of dry matter (DM), Crude protein and ash was done according to
AOAC (2005). Nitrogen (N) content was determined by Kjeldahl method and crude protein (CP)
was calculated as N*6.25. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) was analyzed following the procedure of
Van Soest et al. (1991). Acid detergent fiber (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) was
determined by the methods of Van Soest and Robertson (1985).

3.6. Data Analysis

The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, version 20) was used to analyze the
collected data after verification, editing, and coding. Collected data was described using
descriptive statistics (mean, percentage, and frequency distribution, minimum and maximum
value). Independent sample T-test and chi-square was employed so as to assess statistical
significance at P< 0.05.
The used statistical model was:

Yij = + i + ij

Where
Yij = the response variable µ = overall mean
αi = fixed effect of Agro-ecology (Lowland, midland)
Ɛij = residual error.

For parameters required ranking, indexes were used to determine the rank as follows:

Index= Sum of (3 x number of household ranked first + 2 x number of household ranked second +
1 x number of household ranked third) given for an individual reason, criteria or preference
divided by the sum of (3 x number of household ranked first + 2 x number of household ranked
second + 1 x number of household ranked third) for overall reasons, criteria or prefer. The
variable with the highest index value was the highest economically important.

The indices were calculated as:

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 ( )
( )

Where, Rn = the last rank, Cn = the % of respondents in the last rank, C1 = the % of respondents
ranked first

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 4. RESULTS

4.1. Household characteristics

Table 1 shows household characteristics of the respondents in the study district. The numbers of
male respondents were higher than female headed respondents. And also male participants were
higher in lowland (P<0.011) than midland, whereas the female participants were higher in
midland than lowland respectively. According to the current study, above half of the respondents
(59.7%) were illiterates and 25% of them attended primary school (9.7%), read and write, college
and above (3.6%) and secondary school (2%) respectively. The majority of the participants in the
current study were married (99.5%), whereas the remaining portion (0.5%) was unmarried.
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the respondent households (HHs) in the study district.

Variables Agro ecologies (%

respondents)
Overall X2-test P-value
Midland Lowland

Sex of respondent

Female 25 10.9 18.4 6.501 0.011

Male 75 89.1 81.6
Educational status

Illiterate 64.4 54.3 59.7

Read and write 0 20.7 9.7
Primary school 32.7 16.3 25 36.239 0.001
Secondary school 2.9 1.1 2
College and above 0 7.6 3.6

Marital status

Single 1 0 0.5
Married 99 100 99.5 0.889 0.34
% - percentage, HH - household, X2 - chi-squares, significance P<0.05.

The average (Mean and SE) age of the respondents was 47.5±0.6 for midland and 48.6± 0.7 years
for lowland agro ecologies. There was significant difference (P<0.001) in family size of the
studied households. The average family size of the surveyed households was higher (8.6± 0.24)

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persons per household for midland than (7.2± 0.2) for lowland households with the overall
average family size 7.9± 0.17 person per household. The result indicated that the farming
experience of studied households were, 20 ± 0.6years in midland and 19.9± 0.6 years in lowland
with overall farming experience of 20±0.4 years.

Table 2. The average (Mean and SE) age, family size and farm experience of the respondents in
the study district.

Variables Agro ecologies (Mean± SE)

P value
Overall
Midland Lowland

Age of HH s 47.5±0.6 48.6± 0.7 48.05± 0.5 0. 2

Family size 8.6± 0.24 7.2± 0.2 7.9± 0.17 0.001

Farming 20 ± 0.6 19.9± 0.6 20±0.4 0.6
experience
:HH - household, SE - standard error, significance P<0.05.

4.2. Livestock Population in the Study District.

There is significance difference in number of sheep and donkey across agro-ecologies. The
number of sheep were significantly (P<0.001) higher in lowland agro-ecology than midland,
whereas the number of donkey was significantly (P<0.006) higher in midland than lowland. There
is no significance difference (P>0.05) in number of cattle, goat and chicken in current study
across agro ecology. Overall mean number of cows (6.3±0.24), oxen (2.5±0.1), heifers (3.7±0.2)
and calves (2.2±0.1) per household were reared.

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Table 3. Average (Mean±SEM) livestock numbers per household in the study district

Livestock Agro-ecologies
Species
Midland Lowland
Overall P-value
Cow 6.3±0.3 6.2±0.34 6.3±0.24 0.8

Oxen 2.4±0.1 2.7±0.13 2.5±0.1 0.06

Heifer 3.7±0.3 3.8±0.3 3.7±0.2 0.9

Calf 2.1±0.1 2.3±0.14 2.2±0.1 0.28

Total cattle 14.5±0.8 15±0.8 14.7±0.6 0.66

Goat 26.5±1.6 27.6±1.2 27.08±1.1 0.62

Sheep 3.33±0.3 10.1±1.6 6.72±0.9 0.001
Chicken 13.1±0.84 12.1±0.56 12.6±0.5 0.35

Donkey 1.9±0.16 1.2±0.17 1.6±0.13 0.006

4.3. Purpose of Livestock Keeping in the Study District.

In study area, the purpose of livestock keeping was source of food, social value and income
generation in both agro-ecologies with index value of (0.5, 0.3 and 0.11) respectively (Table 4).
Considerable number of respondents rear livestock for social value in lowland than midland.
During focus group discussion the majority of the respondents indicated that small ruminants are
used for income generation.

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Table 4. Purpose of livestock keeping in study district

Purpose of Agro ecologies

livestock
keeping Midland Lowland Overall

N Index Rank N Index Rank N Index Rank

Source of
21 0.18 2nd 13 0.04 4th 34 0.11 3rd
income
Source of
63 0.7 1st 16 0.1 3rd 79 0.5 1st
food
Draught
11 0.06 3rd 18 0.2 2nd 29 0.05 4th
power
Social value 9 0.02 4th 45 0.6 1st 54 0.3 2nd

4.4. Land Holding and Use Pattern of Households in the Study District.
There is significance difference (P<0.05) in amount of land allocated across agro-ecologies except
Fodder covered land. The total land holding of the respondents was the lowest in mid altitude (2.6
±0.1 ha/HH) as compared to 2.94±0.1ha/HH in the lower altitudes. Land allocate for crop
production and private grazing land were significantly (P<0.001) higher in midland than lowland
agro-ecology whereas, backyard land, fodder covered, land under forage cultivation and closed
plantation were higher in lower altitude.

Table 5. Average Land holding (Mean±SEM) and use pattern of households in study district.

Variables Agro-ecology Overall mean p-value

Midland Lowland

Backyard land (hectares) 0.17±0.01b 0.6±0.03a 0.4±0.02 0.001

Cultivated land (hectares) 1.7 ±0.06a 0.8±0.06b 1.3±0.05 0.001
Private grazing land (hectares) 0.67±0.03a 0.3 ±0.02b 0.5±0.02 0.001
Fodder covered land (hectares) 0.6±0.10b 0.7±0.04a 0.7±0.04 0.52

Land under forage cultivation - 0.46±0.01 0.46±0.01

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(hectares)

Closed plantation (hectares) - 0.43±0.02 0.43±0.02

Total 2.6 ±0.1 2.94±0.1 2.8±0.07 0.05

Means with different superscripts (a, b,) along row are significantly differed at P<0.05; %: Percentage; SE= standard error, ha-
hectare *Significant at P<0.01.

4.5. Feed Resources in study district.

The major feed resources available in the study areas are presented in Table 6. Natural pasture
was the first dominant feed resources in the study district and fodder tree species (woyiba leaf
(Cajanus Cajan) were the second most dominant feed resource in both agro-ecologies. There is
high proportion of crop residue (maize stover) in midland agro-ecology than lowland agro-
ecology with index value of (0.16). According to the result indicated below, teff (Eragrostis tef)
straw), Arra (Terminalia brownie fresen) leaf, maize stover, Pigeon-pea (Cajanus cajan) and shola
(Aeschynomene aspera) leaf were available feed resources with rank of (3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th)
respectively.

There are different crop-residues utilized by livestock in the study district and accordingly, maize
stover was dominant crop-residue followed by teff (Eragrostis tef) straw and Sorghum-stover
respectively in midland agro-ecology. In lowland agro-ecology, teff (Eragrostis tef) straw was
more dominant crop-residues followed maize stover and sorghum stover. Generally the two most
utilized crop residues were maize stover ranked third in midland and teff (Eragrostis tef) straw
also ranked third in lowland ago-ecologiy respectively.

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Table 6. Rank of Feed resources in study district.

Feed resource Agro ecology

Midland Lowland Overall

N Index Rank N Index Rank N Index Rank

Natural pasture 30 0.4 1st 21 0.31 1st 51 0.4 1st

Woyiba leaf (Cajanus 19 0.22 2nd 10 0.1 4th 29 0.2 2nd

Cajan)

Arra (Terminalia brownie 6 0.03 6th 20 0.26 2nd 26 0.12 4th

fresen) leaf

Maize stover 17 0.16 3rd 5 0.02 7th 22 0.1 5th

Teff (Eragrostis tef) 9 0.05 5th 18 0.2 3rd 27 0.14 3rd

straw)

Sorghum stover 5 0.02 7th 6 0.03 6th 11 0.01 8th

Pigeon-pea (Cajanus 14 0.11 4th 4 0.01 8th 18 0.05 6th

cajan)

4 0.01 8th 8 0.06 5th 12 0.02 7th

Shola(Aeschynomene
aspera) leaf

4.6. Seasonal Availability of Feed Resource in the Study District.

The seasonal feed availability in the study area is presented in Table 7. The Respondent
households indicated that natural pasture and private grazing-land are more available feeds during
the months of March to November and less available during December to February which are dry
season. Fodder trees were available all-round the year in study district. The crop-residue are more
available from September to November and July to August based on the two main cropping
seasons prevailed in the study area.

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Table 7. Seasonal availability of feed resource in study district.

Feed types Months in year

March

April

May

June
Nov

Aug
July
Dec
Sep

Feb
Oct

Jan
Natural pasture ** ** ** * * * ** ** ** ** ** **

Private grazing land ** ** ** * * * ** ** ** ** ** **

Hay - - - * * * - - - - - -

Crop residue ** ** ** - - - - - - - ** **

Fodder trees ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **

(**) = Highly available, (*) = less available (–) = shortage

4.7. Livestock Feed Utilization Practices in the Study District.

In the study area livestock feed utilization practices are presented in Table 8. The result showed
that 75.5% of respondents use free grazing and the second utilization practice was tethering
(12.8%). About 6.6% of the respondents use cut and carrying system and 5.1% were use
combination of both feeding practices respectively.

Table 8. Livestock feed utilization practices in study district.

Utilization practices Agro ecologies (% respondents)

Overall
Midland Lowland

Free grazing 77 74 75.5

Tethering/ private grazing 11.5 14.1 12.8

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Cut and carry system 7.6 5.4 6.6

Both systems used 3.9 6.5 5.1

4.8. Grazing Land Availability, Status and Management Practices in Study District.
Availability, status and management of grazing land in the study district is presented in Table 9.
The majority of respondents (65.3%) used communal grazing-land whereas the remaining
portions (34.7%) did not use communal grazing lands. Respondents perceived differently on the
status of communal-grazing-lands. 44.9% of respondents reported as communal grazing land was
decreasing in status from the time to time due to overgrazing. The rest (10.7%) reported as
increasing and unchanged (9.7%) respectively. As the result indicated type of communal grazing
land was open grassland (33.7%), tree covered grassland (21.6%) and bush covered (10%). There
is significant difference across agro-ecologies in management method of grazing land. Removal
of weed was highly practiced (48.1%) in midland than in lowland (43.5%) agro-ecology.

Table 9. Percentage of the respondent’s grazing land management method in study district.

Variables Agro ecologies (%

respondents)
Over all X2-test P-value
Midland Lowland

Is there CGL in Yes 60.6 70.6 65.3

your area
No 39.4 29.3 34.7 2.187 0.1

Status of CGL Increasing 8.6 13 10.7

Decreasing 48.1 41.3 44.9 10.621 0.01
Unchanged 3.8 16.3 9.7
No information 39.4 29.3 34.7

Types CGL Open grass land 34.6 32.6 33.7

Tree covered 21.2 21.7 21.6 7.262 0.03
Bush covered 4.8 16.3 10

32
 grassland
Swampy - - -
No one 39.4 29.3 34.7

Management Removal of 48.1 43.5 46 65.234 0.001

method of CGL weeds
No management 12.5 27.2 19.3

: % - Percentage, X2- Chi-square, CGL- Communal Grazing Land.

4.9. Crop Residue Storage, Treatment and Feeding time in the Study District.

The crop-residues storage, treatment and feeding practices in the study district are presented in
Table 10. In the study district, most (81.12%) respondent’s stored crop- residues by stacking in
the house; while and only (11.22%) bale under shed and very few (7.7%) were stacked outside.

Majority of respondents (86.7%) indicated that farm-land was the sources of crop-residues and
whereas, very few (13.3%) were obtained crop-residues through purchasing from local- market.

The majority (87.75%) of respondents in the study area had treated crop-residues by chopping;
while 6.3% of them treat crop-residues by water soaking and 3.7% by mixing with green feed.
The respondents (38.3) revealed that they fed crop residue to their livestock after conserving for
one month, whereas, 30.6% uses conserving over two months, (28.6%) use after two months and
only (2.5%) were fed crop residue to their livestock soon after collection without conserving.

Table 10. Handling and utilization practices of crop residues in the Study District.

Agro ecologies (% respondents)

Variables Midland Lowland Overall X2-test p-value

Storage place
Stacked outside 9.6 5.4 7.7

Stacked in the house 79.8 82.6 81.1

Baled under the
shade 10.6 12 11.2 1.245 0.53
Source of crop residues

33
Produced on farm 85.6 88 86.7
Purchased 14.4 12 13.3 0.258 0.6

Time of feeding
Soon after collection 4.9 - 2.5
After one month 50 25 38.3
After two month 41.3 14.1 28.6
Over two month 3.8 60.9 30.6 76.905 0.001

Treatment method of crop residue

Chopped 83.65 92.4 87.75
Water soaking 10.6 6.5 6.1
Mixed with green
feed 5.8 1.1 3.6 3.343 0.2

: % - Percentage, X2- Chi-square, p_ significance at (<0.05).

4.10. Improved Forage Production, Utilization and Factors Influencing Its Production in the
Study District.

The improved forage production practice in the study area is presented in Table 11. 24.5% of
respondents of two agro-ecologies practice growing improved forage on their own land while,
remaining majority (75.5%) did not grow improved forages. The species of grown improved
forage were pigeon-pea and elephant grass in midland agro-ecology and Desho grass in lowland
agro-ecologies. But the availability was very few especially in lowland agro-ecology. According
the respondents were raised during focus group discussion in midland agro-ecology, pigeon-pea
was grown in the backward and used for home consumption and utilize its leaf as feed for
livestock. The utilization method for improved forage was only by cut and carrying system in both
agro-ecologies (24.5%).

The overall respondents were reasoned out that, the reasons for not cultivating improved forages
are the Shortage of forage seed (38.8), lack of awareness (18.9%), lack of rain (9.2%) and shortage
of land (8.7%) respectively. The overall the total land allocated for improved forage in the study
area was 0.125 ha.

34
Table 11. Improved forage production, utilization and factor affecting improved forage
production in the study district.

Variables Agro ecologies (%

respondents)
Overall X2-test P-value
Midland Lowland

Do you cultivate Yes 27 21.7 24.5

improved forage?
No 73 78.3 75.5 0.709 0.4

Utilization practice of improved forage

Cut and carry 27 21.7 24.5

Not grow improved forage 73 78.3 75.5 0.709 0.4

Factors affecting improved forage production

Shortage of land 12.5 4.3 8.7
Shortage of forage seed 23.1 56.5 38.8 26.875 0.001
Lack of awareness 24 13 18.9
Lack of rain 13.5 4.3 9.2

% - Percentage, X2- Chi-square, P_ significance value at (P<0.05).

4.11. Feed Conservation Practices in Study District.

The feed conservation used in the study district is presented in Table 12. Most (89.8%) of the
respondents conserve feeds; while about 10.2% of the respondents did not conserve feed in both
agro-ecology. The respondents of two agro-ecologies were mentioned that lack of practice of feed
preservation during the time of surplus production, leads to feed shortage. 77% of respondents
fed the conserved feed to their livestock during dry season and the rest of (8.7%) at wet season
and (4.1%) at any time.

35
Table 12. Feed conservation practices in study district

Agro ecologies (% respondents)

p-
2
Parameters Midland Lowland Overall X -test value

Do you
conserve crop
residues Yes 93.3 85.9 89.8

No 6.7 14.1 10.2 2.917 0.08

If yes, when
do you fed? Dry season 76 78.3 77

Wet season 13.5 3.3 8.7

Any time 3.9 4.3 4.1 5.775 0.056

% - Percentage, X2- Chi-square, P_ significance value at (P<0.05).

4.12. Feed Shortage and Its Consequences in the Study District

All (100%) the respondent households indicate that there is feed shortage in the study district
especially at dry season in both agro-ecologies (Table 13). These low availability and quality of
feeds especially in the dry seasons tends to affect the productive and reproductive performance of
livestock. According to the current study, the effect of feed shortage on livestock production and
productivity were increasing mortality (16.3%), weight loss (12.8%), reduction in animal product
(like milk, meat) (8%) and both factors were (62.8%) respectively.

36
Table 13. Feed shortage and its consequences in the study district.

Variables Agro ecologies (%

respondents) X2-test
Overall P-value

Midland Lowland
Is there feed shortage in 100 100 100 -
Yes
your area?
- - -
No

If yes, season of shortage 100 100 100

Dry -
occurs
- - -
wet

Consequences of feed Weight 8.6 17.4 12.8 0.001

33.941
shortage loss

Reducti 5.8 10.9 8

on in
animal
product

Increase 4.8 29.3 16.3

mortalit
y

Both 80.8 42.4 62.8

% - Percentage, X2- Chi-square, P_ significance value at (P<0.05

4.13. Feed Production Related Problems in Study District

Factors affecting feed production in study area were presented in the table below. As the result
indicated that, the major problem of feed production in the study area was drought, overgrazing,
expansion of cropping land and land shortage with index value of (0.8, 0.15, 0.05 and 0.02)
respectively.

37
Table 14. Ranks of factor affecting feed production in study district.

Agro-ecologies

Factor Midland Lowland Overall

N Index Rank N Index Rank N Index Rank

Drought 70 0.8 1st 60 0.7 1st 130 0.8 1st

Expansion of
cropping land 15 0.12 2nd 3 0.01 4th 18 0.05 3rd
Shortage of
land 5 0.01 4th 9 0.05 3rd 14 0.02 4th
Overgrazing 14 0.1 3rd 20 0.2 2nd 34 0.15 2nd

4.14. Copping Mechanism of Feed Shortage in Study District

Copping strategy during feed scarcity was described in the table 15 below. Overall the copping-up
methods of feed shortages are using browsing fodder trees , feed purchase, mobility and
destocking of livestock with index value of (0.4, 0.23, 0.2 and 0.14) respectively.

Table 15. Rank of copping strategies of feed shortage in study district.

Agro ecologies

Midland Lowland Overall

Copping
strategies N Index Rank N Index Rank N Index Rank

Preserving
5 0.02 5th 3 0.01 6th 8 0.02 5th
feed as hay
Use
improved
6 0.04 4th 1 0.001 7th 7 0.01 6th
forage
Purchasing
supplement
feeds 4 0.01 6th 4 0.02 5th 8 0.02 5th

38
Forage
25 0.2 3rd 15 0.13 3rd 41 0.23 2nd
purchasing

26 0.3 2nd 13 0.1 4th 39 0.14 4th

Destocking
Using
37 0.4 1st 20 0.22 2nd 57 0.4 1st
browse tree

1 0.001 7th 39 0.5 1st 40 0.2 3rd

Mobility

4.15. Dry matter yield from natural pasture and fodder trees
According to current report indicated that around (200) ha of the area land is covered by
communal grazing land and (148.1) ha were covered by fallow land. From this the higher amount
of grazing land was found in lowland (120) ha than midland (80) ha, while fallow land was higher
in midland (102.75) ha and lower in lowland (45.34) ha respectively. Generally, the higher tons of
dry matter (400) ton are produced from grazing land and only (74.05) ton are produced from
fallow land in both agro-ecologies. And also (19.13) hectares of land were covered by fodder
trees (7.75ha from midland and 11.4ha from lowland) with an estimated dry matter yield 13.4
tones per hectares from both agro- ecologies.
Table 16. Dry matter yield from different feed types

Agro-ecologies
Feed type Midland Lowland Total
DM
Area Productivity Total Area Productivit Total area
(tons)
(ha) t/ha (ha) y t/ha (ha)

Natural 80 2 160 120 2 240 400

pasture
Fallow 102.75 0.5 51.4 45.34 0.5 22.67 74.05
land
grazing
Fodder 7.75 0.7 5.42 11.4 0.7 7.98 13.4
trees and
shrubs
Total 216.82 270.65 487.47

39
4.16. Dry Matter from crop residues

According to the data from current study had demonstrated that (314.13) ha of land which
covered by the cropping land (219.13ha in midland and 95ha in lowland) respectively. The agro
pastoral communities in to study area currently has been produced crop residues from maize, teff
and sorghum. The crop residues are the third dominant feed resource in Bena-Tsemay district
with supply of (2,355) tons of dry matter to feed livestock.

Table 17. Crop and straw yield production.

Agro-ecologies
Crop Midland Lowland Total
type DM
DM DM
Total Grain yield CF Total land Grain yield CF (tons)
yield yield
land (ha) in tons plowed in tons
95 450 2 900 30 340 2 680 1580
Maize
40 100 1.5 225 71.26 150 1.5 150 375
Teff
25 60 2.5 150 52.87 100 2.5 250 400
Sorghum
160 1,275 154.13 1,080 2,355
Total
CF: conversion factor.

4.17. Leaf Biomass Yield of Major Indigenous Fodder Trees and Shrubs in Study District.
The biomass yield of selected indigenous fodder trees and shrubs of two agro- ecology is
presented in table 18. There is no significance difference (P>0.05) of biomass yield of shrubs and
fodder trees except Arra (Terminalia brownie fresen) and Bitsobitso (Mytenus ovatus) between
two agro- ecologies. This study indicated that fodder trees had higher biomass yield as compared
to shrubs in both agro-ecologies. Biomass yield from Arra (Terminalia brownie fresen) was
significantly (P<0.001) higher in lower altitude than mid altitude whereas, Bitsobitso (Mytenus
ovatus) had higher biomass yield in mid altitude than lower altitude of the study district. In
general, the mid land agro-ecology had 11.1–17.6 kg/tree and 1. 6–3.6 kg/shrub while the lowland

40
had 9.4–21.9 kg/tree and 1.5–2.6kg/shrub average biomass yields of fodder trees and shrubs in the
study district.

Table 18. Average (Mean ± SE) of leaf biomass yields (kg) of major selected indigenous fodder
trees and shrubs in study district.

Agro-ecologies

Feed types Scientific name Species Overall P-

Midland Lowland
value

Woyiba Cordia Africana Tree 11.9±0.8 10.5±1.11 11.2±0.6 0.32

Arra Terminalia brownie Tree 12.7±0.6 20.5±1.4 16.6±1.17 0.001

fresen

Shola Aeschynomene aspera Tree 16.3±1.3 14.6±0.8 15.5±0.7 0.29

Mangaz Annona senegalensis Tree 14.4±0.6 14±0.8 14.2±0.5 0.72

Baraz Bridelia micrantha Tree 13.9±0.8 12.5±0.6 13.2±0.5 0.204

Bitsobitso Mytenus ovatus Shrub 3.3±0.3 2.2±0.2 2.7±0.2 0.008

Onoki Sarcocephalus latifolius Shrub 2.3±0.3 2.1±0.2 2.2±0.2 0.518

Akmba Acokanthera schimper Shrub 1.85±0.2 1.7±0.2 1.7±0.13 0.600

Tubakey Rhus vulgaris Shrub 2.7±0.3 2.3±0.3 2.5±0.5 0.259

4.18. Chemical Composition of Selected Feeds in the Study District.

Chemical compositions of major feed used by livestock in the area are presented in Table 16. The
higher Dry Matter (DM) percentage was recorded from maize stover (99.6±0.1) and secondly

41
pigeon-pea (98.45±0.45 from midland agro-ecology. The third dry matter percentage (DM %)
was natural-pasture for both agro-ecologies which ranged from (94.5% to 96.1%). The Dry
Matter (DM) of all selected feed resources from this study are 86% and above.

The higher ash was observed for natural pasture, while lower is for maize stover, whereas the ash
content of natural-pasture ranged from 11.8 to 17.7% ash/g/kg. The higher crude protein (CP) was
observed for woyiba leaf (Cordia Africana) which ranged from (30.8 to 33.7%), Pigeon-pea
(Cajanus Cajan) (27.2±0.4) and from natural pasture which ranged from (18.3 to 21.6%) from
both agro-ecology. But lower CP was for maize stover (4.2±0.7) from midland and teff
(Eragrostis tef) straw (3.6±0.2) from lowland agro-ecology.

The Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) content of all sampled major feeds from the present study
ranged from (30.6% to 72.6%) from both agro-ecologies respectively. The Acid Detergent Fiber
(ADF) contents of the maize stover from this result ranges from (40.57% to 42%); natural pasture
from (35.05% to 36.5%) and maize stover (33.9% to 34.7%) respectively.

The result indicated that the higher Acid Detergent Lignin (ADL) value were recorded from
woyiba leaf (Cordia Africana) which ranged from (12.4% to 18.8%/kg) from both agro-ecologies,
whereas lower value was recorded from maize stover which ranged from (1.58% to 1.82%)
respectively.

42
Table 19. (Mean and SE) of chemical composition percentage of major selected feed resources in the study district.

Parameters

AE Feed type DM (%) Ash (%) CP (%) NDF (%) ADF (%) ADL (%)

Midland Natural pasture 97.5±1 17.5±0.2 21.1±0.5 45.5±0.2 36±0.5 4.5±0.6

Woyiba (Cordia 96.7±0.2 11.9±0.6 33.2±0.5 46.9±0.6 41.37±0.8 12.7±0.3

Africana) leaf

Maize stover 99.6±0.1 3.5±0.5 4.2±0.7 71.4±1.2 34.3±0.4 1.7±0.12

Pigeon-pea 98.45±0.45 9.05±0.35 27.2±0.4 30.8±0.2 28.1±0.4 6.3±0.2

(Cajanus cajan)

Lowland Natural pasture 96±0.14 12.5±0.7 19.5±1.2 43.6±0.12 35.3±0.25 3.6±0.8

Arra (Terminalia 96.05±0.15 8.85±0.05 20.3±0.1 37.3±0.34 29.2±0.2 9.9±0.2

brownie fresen)
leaf

Teff (Eragrostis 89.15±0.25 13.5±0.1 3.6±0.2 51.4±1.6 29±1 6±0.04

tef) straw

Woyiba (Cordia 96.7±0.1 13.2±0.7 31.02±0.2 49.02±0.5 41.7±0.3 17.7±1.1

Africana) leaf

%: Percentage, DM: Dry Matter Percentage; CP: Crude Protein; NDF: Neutral Detergent Fiber; ADF: Acid Detergent Fiber, ADL; Acid Detergent Lignin.

49
 5. DISCUSSIONS

5.1. Household Characteristics in the Study District

In the current study, the number of male headed households were significantly (P<0.011) higher
than females. The result is similar with the finding of Chufa et al. (2022), who reported 87.7% of
household heads as male in Derashe special woreda. The higher number of male participants in
the study area might be due to the role of male heads are higher in work activities. According to
the current study, the proportion of married respondents were comprises about 99.5% and the
value was in agreement with the proportion of married households (94.9%) reported by Aydaiso
(2019) in South Ari woreda.

Ages of the households were comparable with 40.3±0.92yrs reported by Tsedeke (2007) in
Halaba district. The low level of educational status in the district was similar with many other
areas in rural Ethiopia (Endale, 2015; Dembela and Yidnekachew, 2018; Chufa et al, 2022). The
current study regarding to family size was similar with the report of Yeshitila, (2008) who
indicated 8.52 ± 0.41 family size of the households in Halaba district. Generally, in the study
district, the average family size of the respondents is higher than national average family size of
rural areas (4.9) per household (CSA, 2011).

5.2. Livestock Population Study District

There is a significant difference (P<0.05) in the number of sheep and donkey across the two agro-
ecologies, with a higher number of sheep being owned by respondents in the lowland agro-
ecology whereas the number of donkey was significantly (P<0.006) higher in midland than
lowland. This is attributed to the breed of sheep raised in the area, which are black headed Somali
breeds known for their ability to survive harsh environments. From the studied livestock, goats
were high in number in both agro-ecology. This is due to capability of goats to resist shortage of
feed and other harsh condition than other livestock reared in the area.

During the focus group discussion, the participants reported that now a day the number, herd
compositions and size of livestock into study area are decreasing. This is due to the rapid
shrinkage in grazing-land by the frequent occurrence of drought. The overall mean TLU of
livestock per household in the study area was greater than the average TLU values of (7.97),
49
(0.46) and (0.07) for cattle, goats and poultry, respectively in Meta Robi district (Bedasa, 2012).
Asrat et al., (2013) also noted the average number of livestock in terms of Tropical Livestock
Units (TLU) in the three districts; Kersa, Omo Nada and Tiro Afeta of Jimma zone as cattle
(4.74), sheep (0.10), goats (0.06) and donkey (0.07) respectively.

5.3. Purpose of Livestock Keeping

Livestock generate income for the farmers directly by selling the animal or through the
production of milk and milk products and hides and skins (Asmare, 2018). In agreement with the
current finding, 68% of the respondents in Western Harerghe indicated that they rear cows and
heifers for source of food and cash generation through sale of milk and live animals, while oxen
and bulls for cash generation and draught power (Dereje and Tesfaye, 2008). Considerable
number of respondents rear livestock for social value in lowland than midland. Because in
lowland the community is surrounded by some pastoralists, so pastoralists mainly keep livestock
for their social value than for sale them. This result was similar with the finding of Dembela and
Yidnekachew, (2018) in which pastoralists’ rear livestock for social value and used as draft power
in selected district of South Omo zone.

During focus group discussion the majority of the respondents indicated that small ruminants are
used for income generation and the finding is in agreement with the report of Dhaba et al. (2012)
who indicated that 93% of the respondents keep small ruminant in Ilu Abba Bora, Ethiopia for
income generation. Dereje and Tesfaye (2008) reported that farmers rear goats for milk and also
cash source (57.6%) and meat (41.6%) respectively in jima zone.

5.4. Land Holding and Use Pattern of Households in Study District.

There is significance difference (P<0.05) in amount of land allocated except fodder covered land
across agro-ecologies. The average landholding of the respondents in the study district is higher
than the average national landholding size (0.96 ha/HH) and Oromia region (1.15 ha/HH) (CSA,
2011). The land allocated for crop production and private grazing land in the lowland agro-
ecology was small as compared to midland and this could be due to the pastoralists in lower
altitude (Tsemay groups) has low practiced in crop production and also they mainly depends on
communal grazing than private.

50
The current study was in contrast with the finding of Bedasa (2012) who reported that the amount
of land size allocated for crop production as1.7 ha and 0.4 ha for grazing land in Jeldu district,
west shewa zone. The finding of the average private grazing land in the current study is higher
than the reported value of 0.07ha by Gashu et al. (2017) for West Hararghe, 0.4ha by Teshome
(2009) for urban and peri-urban farms of mid rift valley of Ethiopia.

5.5. Feed Resources in Study District.

According to the respondents rank, natural pasture was the first ranked feed resources in the study
district and fodder tree species ranked second in both agro-ecologies. The current study is similar
to the feed resources in most highlands of Ethiopia (Lemma et al., 2002; Alemayehu, 2003;
Tolera et al., 2012). Additionally the current result is in line with the study by Endale (2015) who
noted natural pasture as the major feed resources in Meta Robi district. Dembela and
Yidnekachew (2018) also reported that natural pasture, crop residues and browsing species are the
major livestock feed resource in agro-pastoral areas of Maale woreda of South Omo zone.
Similarly, Terefe et al.(2010) had shown that 80-90% major feed resources for livestock feeding
comes from open communal grazing land. Moreover, the crop residues have been used as the
third major feed resources in to study area.

5.6. Seasonal Availability of Feed Resource in Study District.

The current study indicated that natural pasture and private grazing-land are more available feeds
during the months of March to November and less available during December to February. Fodder
trees were available all-round the year in study district. Similarly, fodder trees and shrubs are
important animal feeds in Ethiopia especially in arid, semi-arid, and mountain zones, where large
number of livestock is found (Alemayehu, 2004). Most browse species have the advantage of
maintaining their greenness and nutritive value throughout the dry season when grasses dry up and
deteriorate in quality and quantity (Andualem, 2016). The crop-residue are more available from
September to November and July to August based on the two main cropping seasons prevailed in
the study area. Different scholars (Teferi et al., 2010: Bogale at al., 2008) indicated that the quality
and quantity of the available livestock feed resources had declined drastically during the dry
seasons due to frequent drought occurrences. In the study district, the conversion of communal
grazing area in to cropping farm land especially in midland agro-ecology was a factor that leads to

51
feed shortage. This might be due to the peoples living mid altitude (Bena groups) of study district
were agro-pastoralists and they practice crop production. Similar research funding by Angassa and
Oba (2008) confirmed that the conversion of grazing land in to cropping land in Southern Ethiopia
rangelands had a major impact on increased forage scarcity during dry seasons.

5.7. Livestock Feed Utilization Practices in the Study District

Livestock feeding practices from the current study was similar with the finding of Yigrem et al.
(2008) who reported that (94.5%) free-grazing, (4.4%) cut and carry and (1.1%) tethering in Jeldu
district. Similarly, Beyene et al. (2011) found that the most common feeding system in mixed
crop-livestock farming areas was free grazing. On the other hand, Tegegne et al. (2013), the
dominant feeding system in urban dairying areas was stall-feeding, where animals are kept in
stalls and fed with cut forage or crop residues. Duguma et al. (2012) also noted that the feeding
system in lowland areas involved animals freely grazing on communal grazing land. Hussen et al.
(2008) reported that livestock in different parts of the country were fed on roadsides or home
yards by tethering. The variations in feeding practices, with some studies reporting the practice of
stall-feeding or tethering in addition to free grazing may be influenced by factors such as
geographic location, availability of forage resources, and cultural practices in different study
areas.

5.8. Communal Grazing Land Availability, Status and Management Practices.

The majority of participants (65.3%) used communal grazing-land which is similar with the study
of Lemma et al. (2002) in Ethiopia who found that the majority of respondents (78%) used
communal grazing land. However, they reported a higher percentage (89%) of respondents
practicing weed control as a grazing land management strategy, compared to the present study
(76.5%). Respondents perceived differently on the status of communal- grazing-lands. 45% of
respondents reported as communal-grazing-land was decreasing in status from the time to time
due to overgrazing. Similarly the study reported by Sintayehu et al. (2008) revealed decline in the
size of the grazing-land and degradation through overgrazing and the expansion of arable
cropping. This suggests that overgrazing and land degradation are widespread challenges in
Ethiopia.

52
5.9. Crop Residue Storage, Treatment and Feeding Practices

In the study area, most (81.12%) respondent’s stored crop- residues by stacking in a house; while
very few (7.7%) stacked outside, only (11.22%) bale under shed. Similarly, Endale (2015)
reported that 91% of the farmers stored the crop-residues by stacking out door near homesteads in
Yerer area. The other study reported by Asrat et al. (2013) showed that only 7.04% of farmers
stack outside on the field or around homestead without any shedding in Jimma Zone. Nutritional-
quality of crop-residues is highly affected by storage method and storage duration as investigated
in Teff and wheat straws (Fekede et al., 2013). In the study area, majority of respondents (86.7%)
indicated that farm-land was the sources of crop-residues and whereas, very few (13.3%) were
obtained crop-residues through purchasing from local- market. It is apparent that crop-residues
are poor in quality and improvements of low quality feed are imperative to improve its’ feed
intake and digestibility by animal. Fikiru (2015) indicated that generally low-quality-feed
improvement practices are not commonly utilized by the small-holder farmers in Ethiopia due to
lack of awareness, skill gap and inputs. The majority of the respondents (38.3) revealed that they
fed crop residue to their livestock were after one month of collection from farm land.

5.10. Improved Forage Production and Utilization Practices

Production of improved forages is not widely practiced in the study district, only 24.5% of
respondents in both agro-ecologies practice growing improved forage. The current result is similar
with the finding of Mengistu et al. (2021) who reported Desho grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum)
and elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) as the most common forages in Damot Gale district.

Adoption of improved forage production by the farming community has been very low because of
factors such as type of livestock production system, lack and unadoptable forage technologies,
poor extension services and others (Gebreegziabher and Tsegay, 2016). The overall the total land
allocated for improved forage in the study area was 0.125 ha which was less than 0.51ha reported
by Negesse et al. (2010) in Bahir Dar Zuria and Mecha Woreda. Moreover, Azage et al. (2013)
reported that about (93.8% of dairy farmers’ allocated land for improved forages development,
with an average area of 0.4ha in Bako, western Ethiopia.

53
5.11. Feed Conservation Practices in the Study District

The forage conservation helps to bridge the quantity gap between livestock feed requirements and
the production of forage (Alemayehu, 2002). According to current study, 89.8% of the
respondents conserve feeds; while about 10.2% of the respondents did not. Lack of practice of
feed conservation during the time of surplus production, leads to feed shortage. Authors (Terefe
et al., 2015; Mohammed et al.,2016:) showed that feed shortage is aggravated in Salamago
district in South zone and Jimma zone, respectively due to absence of feed-conservation practices.
In the study area, there are no silage making practice due to lack of awarness, lack of proper tools,
shortage of land and shortage of forage. Sisay (2006) indicated that feed shortage is prevalent
throughout the year in both in dry and wet seasons. A study by Hidosa et al. (2020) in Hamer and
Bena-Tsemay Woreda of South Omo Zone, Ethiopia, found that feed shortage was a major
challenge in the study area, particularly during the dry season. This aligns with the findings of the
present study, which also identified feed shortage as a prevalent issue during the dry season.

5.12. Feed Production Related Problems

Gezu et al. (2014) reported that climate variability, expansion of cropping land, and lack of inputs
were the main challenges to livestock feed production. Similarly the study by Dembela and
Yednekachew (2018) in Maale Woreda, South Omo Zone, Ethiopia, found that feed shortage was
a significant problem in the study area, particularly during the dry season. This is consistent with
the findings of the present study, which also highlighted feed shortage as a major constraint to
livestock production, especially during the dry season. Solomon et al. (2019) also reported that
feed shortage was a major challenge affecting livestock production in Farta District, South
Gondar Zone, Ethiopia. Overall, these studies support the idea that feed shortage is a prevalent
issue in Ethiopia, particularly during the dry season. Climate variability, deterioration of grazing
land and expansion of farming land are common constraints that affect feed production and
subsequently impact livestock productivity and reproductive performance.

5.13. Copping Mechanism of Feed Shortage

Gezu et al. (2014) noted that farmers coped with feed scarcity by conserving crop residues and
traveling animals to areas with better feed availability in Umbulo Wacho watershed in southern
Ethiopia. Belay and Mulu (2009) also reported similar coping mechanisms for feed shortage,

54
including the collection and storing of crop residues, utilization of browse species, and the use of
supplementary feeding through purchasing or homegrown sources. This suggests that these
coping mechanisms are common strategies used by farmers in different regions of Ethiopia.

In a study by Mohammed et al. (2016) in Salamago district, South Ethiopia, farmers coped with
feed shortage by purchasing feed from the market, utilizing crop residues, and selling
unproductive animals. This is similar to the coping mechanisms mentioned in the present study,
particularly the use of supplementary feeding through purchasing and destocking of animals..
These coping mechanisms align with the findings of the present study, highlighting the
importance of these strategies in mitigating feed shortages. Overall, the findings from these
studies support the idea that farmers in Ethiopia employ similar coping mechanisms during feed
scarcity, such as conserving crop residues, utilizing browse species, purchasing supplementary
feed, and destocking unproductive animals. However, there may be variations in specific
strategies depending on the local context and available resources.

5.14. Dry Matter Yield from Grazing Land, Crop Residues, Fodder Trees and Shrubs.
According to current report indicated that around (200) ha of the area land is covered by grazing
land and (148.1) ha were fallow land. From this the higher amount of grazing land was found in
lowland (120) ha than midland (80) ha, while fallow land was higher in midland (102.75) ha and
lower in lowland (45.34) ha respectively. Accordingly, the higher tons of dry matter (400) ton are
produced from grazing land and only (74.05) ton are produced from fallow land in both agro-
ecologies. And also (19.13) hectares of land were covered by fodder trees and shrubs (7.75ha
from midland and 11.4ha from lowland) with an estimated dry matter yield 13.4 tones per
hectares from both agro- ecologies. According to the data from current study had demonstrated
that (314.13) ha of land which covered by the cropping land (219.13ha in midland and 95ha in
lowland) respectively. The agro pastoral communities in to study area currently has been
produced crop residues from maize, teff and sorghum. The crop residues are the third dominant
feed resource in Bena-Tsemay district with supply of (2,355) tons of dry matter to feed livestock.
Generally, from the current study, total dry matter produced from natural pasture, crop residue,
fallow land, indigenous fodder trees and shrubs were 2,842.47 ton DM from both agro-ecologies
respectively.

55
5.15. Biomass Yield of Indigenous Fodder Trees and shrubs.
The biomass yield of selected indigenous fodder trees and shrubs of two agro- ecology is
presented in table 18. There is no significance difference (P>0.05) of biomass dry matter output of
shrubs and fodder trees except Arra (Terminalia brownie fresen) and Bitsobitso (Mytenus ovatus)
between the two agro- ecologies. This study indicated that fodder trees had higher biomass yield
as compared to shrubs in both agro-ecologies. This might be the ability of fodder trees to survive
drought season by staying green throughout the year. Biomass yield from Arra (Terminalia
brownie fresen) was significantly (P<0.001) higher in lower altitude than mid altitude whereas,
Bitsobitso (Mytenus ovatus) had higher biomass yield in mid altitude than lower altitude of the
study district. The variation of dry matter yields among different species could be reflected due to
variation in potential biomass yield which was associated to differences in growth of the species
and availabilities of the species. Moreover, the biomass yield in each species is affected by
variation in kebeles, which was potentially ascribed to spatial differences, climatic factors and soil
fertility. In general, the midland agro-ecology had 11.1–17.6 kg/tree and 1. 6–3.6 kg/shrub while
the lowland had 9.4–21.9 kg/tree and 1.5–2.6kg/shrub average biomass yields of fodder trees and
shrubs in the study district. In contrast to the current findings, Takele et al. (2014) reported higher
biomass yields of 24.55 kg/tree/shrubs to 958.76 kg/tree of selected indigenous fodder tree/shrubs
in Wolayta zone, southern Ethiopia.

5.16. Chemical Composition of Selected Feeds

The Dry Matter (DM) of crop-residues, natural-pasture and improved forage species from this
study are 90% and above, which is similar to the reported values by Gezu et al, (2014) from the
North Gonder zone. The Dry Matter (DM) content of teff (Eragrostis tef) straw in the current
study is lower than that of the national average value of (91.9 %). The Dry Matter (DM) content
of crop residues in the current study was in agreement with the report of Zewdie (2010) and
Girma et al. (2014), who revealed DM (Dry Matter) content of crop residues as 89.86 % to 93.6
%, respectively.

The ash content for teff (Eragrostis tef) straw was higher than the reported value of 8.36±0.44 and
9.35 ±0.14%) by Bayisa et al, (2022) for different parts of Ethiopian highlands. The Crude
Protein (CP) content of crop residues recorded in the present study is lower than the minimum

56
level (7% CP) required for rumen microbial function (Van Soest, 1982). But the Crude Protein
(CP) contents of indigenous browse leaves (woyiba leaf (Cajanus Cajan) and Arra (Terminalia
brownie fresen) leaf), natural pasture and Pegion-pea (Cajanus Cajan) was higher than the
minimum requirement level of livestock. The respondents indicated that indigenous fodder trees
(IFT) are important source of supplementary feed for livestock in dry season. This could be due to
their characteristics to stay green longer during dry season than natural pasture. In the current
study, cereal straws, stovers, fodder trees and natural pasture varied in their Crude Protein (CP)
content, this might be attributed from differences in crop species, agro-ecologies and stage of
growth.

The Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) content of all sampled major feeds from the present study
ranged from (30.6% to 72.6%). The NDF content of crop residues obtained in the current study
was comparable with the value reported by Girma et al. (2014) which was ranged (66.5% to
77.2%). According to classification of Singh and Oosting, (1992), the feeds with Neutral
Detergent Fiber (NDF) content less than (45%) are categorized as high quality feed, from (45% to
65%) as medium quality feeds and those feeds contain more than (65%) Neutral Detergent Fiber
(NDF) is grouped under low-quality feeds. Hence, based on this classification, Pigeon-pea
(Cajanus cajan) from mid altitude and natural pasture and Arra (Terminalia brownie fresen) leaf
from lower altitude were considered as high quality feeds with NDF content of below 45%. The
natural pasture from mid altitude, woyiba leaf (Cajanus Cajan) and teff (Eragrostis tef) straw
were categorized as medium-qualityfeed-class whereas maize stover was considered as low
quality feed and further investigations are required to improve feeding value of feed utilized by
the livestock in the study area. Similarly, the study of Yihalem, (2004) reported that feeds that
have above (550g/ kg, DM) was limited dry matter intake by the ruminant-animals.

In the study area, the average Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) contents of natural-pasture ranges from
(35.05% to 36.5%), maize stover and teff (Eragrostis tef) straw were (34.3±0.4% and 29±1%),
browse trees (41.4% to 42.2% from (woyiba leaf (Cajanus Cajan) and 29% to 29.4% from Arra
(Terminalia brownie fresen) leaf) and pigeon-pea (27.7% to 28.5%) respectively. The present
result was lower than the reported Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) values of natural-pasture by Chufa
et al, (2022) that ranged from (45.6% to 54.6%) for Derashe especial woreda of southern

57
Ethiopia. Generally, the reported by Kellems and Church (1998) was categorized roughages with
less than 40% ADF as high quality and above 40% as low quality. So, the crop-residues, natural-
pastures, improved forage and fodder tree species (Arra (Terminalia brownie fresen) leaf could be
categorized as high-quality-feeds in the study area, whereas (woyiba leaf (Cajanus Cajan)
considered as low quality feed and should be supplemented with high-quality-feeds. In both agro-
ecologies of the study area, the highest Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) content was recorded in
maize stover, while the lowest was observed in teff (Eragrostis tef). High Acid Detergent Fiber
(ADF) content in maize stover is might be due to conversion of usable nutrients in to grain during
grain filling and this make lower digestibility potential of maize stover. The Acid Detergent
Lignin (ADL) content of given forages was mainly depending on age of the plant. When the plant
becomes old, the cell well content becomes very hard on the contrary; when the plant becomes
young, the cell well part becomes more palatable (Abera et al., 2021). The value of Acid
Detergent Lignin (ADL) from maize stover in mid altitude (1.7±0.12) was lower as compared
with the value reported by Lemma et al., (2016) in midland of Kedida Gamela district (10.43%).

58
 6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

6.1. Conclusions
An assessment of feed resources was carried out in two altitudinal zones of Bena-Tsemay district,
South Omo zone, Southern Ethiopia to identify the types and sources of feeds, constraints in feed
production, utilization and evaluate the chemical composition of selected feed resources. In the
study area, largest feed is contributed from natural pasture and indigenous fodder tree species,
while lower contribution is from improved forages. The improved forge development was not
widely practiced. The maize stover and teff straw are the most common crop-residues used as
animal feed resources in the study area.

The free grazing, private (tethering) grazing and cut and carry system, are important livestock
feed utilization practices. The communal-grazing-lands, which used as feed source in the study
area, are deteriorated and diminishing from time to time, which causes the feed shortages. Feed
was conserved only in the form of hay and there was no silage making practice prevailed at all in
the study district. Drought, overgrazing, expansion of cropping-land and shortage of land were
major constraints of livestock feed production in the study area whereas using browse tree
species, forage purchase, mobility and destocking were top ranked feed scarcity mitigation
strategies. Total dry matter produced from natural pasture, crop residue, fallow land, indigenous
fodder trees and shrubs were 2,842.47 ton DM from both agro-ecologies respectively. The study
indicated that fodder trees had higher biomass yield as compared to shrubs in both agro-ecologies.

The crop-residues which third dominant feed resource used by livestock had low crude protein
and high fiber contents, while browse species, natural pasture and improved forage species had
high crude protein content. The findings indicate that there is a need for improved feed resources
and management practices to enhance livestock productivity in the study area. The decrease in
livestock numbers and the conversion of grazing land into crop land pose significant challenges to
the sustainability of livestock production. It is crucial to address these issues through sustainable
land management, promotion of improved livestock breeds, and the adoption of diversified feed
resources.

59
6.2. Recommendations.
Based on the study, the following recommendations can be made:

 Promote sustainable land management practices to address the shrinking grazing land and
conserve natural resources.
 Enhance livestock breeds and productivity through selective breeding and improved animal
husbandry practices.
 Encourage the adoption of diversified feed resources, such as improved forage production
and utilization of crop residues and agro-industrial by-products.
 Provide education and awareness programs to farmers on improved feeding practices and
the importance of balanced nutrition for livestock.
 Strengthen collaboration between research institutions, government agencies, and local
communities to develop and implement sustainable livestock feed management strategies.

By implementing these recommendations, it is possible to improve the availability and quality of

feed resources, enhance livestock productivity, and contribute to the overall development of the
livestock sector in Bena Tsemay Woreda and similar areas in Southern Ethiopia.

60
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