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DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

A Course Material on

MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

B. Eng21-EE-G
NUMBER OF CREDITS: 9

By

Joseph, Benedicto M

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERIN

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LECTURE 1

SENSORS

INDODUCTION

 Sensors are devices that are frequently used to detect and respond to electrical or optical signals.

 A Sensor converts the physical parameter (for example: temperature, blood pressure, humidity, speed,

etc.) into a signal which can be measured electrically.

 Sensors detects and responds to some type of input from the physical environment. The specific input

could be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure, or any one of a great number of other environmental

phenomena. The output is generally a signal that is converted to human-readable display at the sensor

location

 Let’s explain the example of temperature. The mercury in the glass thermometer expands and contracts

the liquid to convert the measured temperature which can be read by a viewer on the calibrated glass

tube.

SELECTION CRITERIA FOR SENSORS

While comparing the Sensor, consider the following parameters:

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Therefore, there are certain features which have to be considered when we choose a sensor.

These are:

1. Accuracy - How close the sensor reading is to the True Value.

2. Environmental condition – usually has limits for temperature/ humidity

3. Range – Measurement limit of sensor

4. Calibration – Essential for most of the measuring devices as the readings changes with time. As sensors

need frequent calibration, so it should be easy to calibrate.

5. Resolution – Smallest increment detected by the sensor

6. Sensitivity - Ratio of change in output to a unit change in the input. Again, high is good, but too high could

be a problem. Also, higher the sensitivity, more will be the cost in most cases.

7. Cost – It should not be expensive

8. Repeatability – The reading that varies is repeatedly measured under the same environment

CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS

The sensors are classified into the following criteria:

1. Primary Input quantity (Measurand)

2. Transduction principles (Using physical and chemical effects)

3. Material and Technology

4. Property

5. Application

Transduction principle is the fundamental criteria which are followed for an efficient approach. Usually,

material and technology criteria are chosen by the development engineering group.

Classification based on property is as given below:

· Temperature – Thermistors, thermocouples, RTD’s, IC and many more.

· Pressure – Fibre optic, vacuum, elastic liquid based manometers, LVDT, electronic.

· Flow – Electromagnetic, differential pressure, positional displacement, thermal mass, etc.

· Level Sensors – Differential pressure, ultrasonic radio frequency, radar, thermal displacement, etc.
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· Proximity and displacement – LVDT, photoelectric, capacitive, magnetic, ultrasonic.

· Gas and chemical – Semiconductor, Infrared, Conductance, Electrochemical.

· Others – Moisture, humidity sensor, Speed sensor, mass, Tilt sensor, force, viscosity.

Classification based on power or energy supply requirements:

· Active Sensor – Sensors that require power supply are called as Active Sensors. Example: LiDAR (Light

Detection and Ranging), Photoconductive cell.

· Passive Sensor – Sensors that do not require power supply are called as Passive Sensors. Example:

Radiometers, film photography.

Classification based on applications:

· Accelerometers – These are based on the Micro Electro Mechanical sensor technology. They are used for

patient monitoring which includes pace makers and vehicle dynamic systems.

· Biosensors – These are based on the electrochemical technology. They are used for food testing, medical

care device, water testing, and biological warfare agent detection.

· Image Sensors – These are based on the CMOS technology. They are used in consumer electronics,

biometrics, traffic and security surveillance and PC imaging.

· Motion Detectors – These are based on the Infra-Red, Ultrasonic, and Microwave / radar technology.

They are used in videogames and simulations, light activation and security detection.

TYPES OF SENSORS

Some commonly used sensors along with their principle and applications are explained as follows:

1. Temperature Sensors

 This device collects information about temperature from a source and converts into a form that is

understandable by other device or person. The best illustration of a temperature sensor is mercury in

glass thermometer.

 The mercury in the glass expands and contracts depending on the alterations in temperature. The outside

temperature is the source element for the temperature measurement. The position of the mercury is

observed by the viewer to measure the temperature.

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There are two basic types of temperature sensors:

 Contact Sensors – This type of sensor requires direct physical contact with the object or media that is

being sensed. They supervise the temperature of solids, liquids and gases over a wide range of

temperatures.

 Non-contact Sensors – This type of sensor does not require any physical contact with the object or

media that is being sensed. They supervise non-reflective solids and liquids but are not useful for gases

due to natural transparency. These sensors use Plank’s Law to measure temperature. This law deals with

the heat radiated from the source of heat to measure the temperature.

Temperature Sensors can also be analog or digital. In an Analog Temperature Sensor, the changes in the

Temperature correspond to change in its physical property like resistance or voltage. LM35 is a classic Analog

Temperature Sensor.

An example of temperature sensor

Working of different types of Temperature Sensors along with examples

 Thermocouple – They are made of two wires (each of different homogeneous alloy or metal) which

form a measuring junction by joining at one end. This measuring junction is open to the elements being

measured. The other end of the wire is terminated to a measuring device where a reference junction is

formed. The current flows through the circuit since the temperature of the two junctions are different.

The resulted milli-voltage is measured to determine the temperature at the junction.

 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) – These are types of thermal resistors that are fabricated to

alter the electrical resistance with the alteration in temperature. They are very expensive than any other

temperature detection devices. The diagram of Resistance Temperature Detectors is shown below.

 Thermistors – They are another kind of thermal resistor where a large change in resistance is

proportional to small change in temperature.

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2. INFRARED SENSOR (IR) Sensor

 This device emits and/or detects infrared radiation to sense a particular phase in the environment.

Generally, thermal radiation is emitted by all the objects in the infrared spectrum. The infrared sensor

detects this type of radiation which is not visible to human eye.

IR Sensors are light based sensor that are used in various applications like Proximity and Object Detection. IR

Sensors are used as proximity sensors in almost all mobile phones.

Types of IR sensors

There are two types of Infrared or IR Sensors, Transmissive Type and Reflective Type.

 In Transmissive Type IR Sensor, the IR Transmitter (usually an IR LED) and the IR Detector (usually a

Photo Diode) are positioned facing each other so that when an object passes between them, the sensor

detects the object.

 The other type of IR Sensor is a Reflective Type IR Sensor. In this, the transmitter and the detector are

positioned adjacent to each other facing the object. When an object comes in front of the sensor, the

infrared light from the IR Transmitter is reflected from the object and is detected by the IR Receiver and

thus the sensor detects the object.

Working of IR Sensor

The basic idea is to make use of IR LEDs to send the infrared waves to the object. Another IR diode of the same

type is to be used to detect the reflected wave from the object, as shown in the diagram below
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Simple Diagram Explaining Working of IR Led Sensor

 When IR receiver is subjected to infrared light, a voltage difference is produced across the leads. Less

voltage which is produced can be hardly detected and hence operational amplifiers (Op-amps) are used

to detect the low voltages accurately. The electrical property of IR sensor components can be used to

measure the distance of an object. The fact when IR receiver is subjected to light, a potential difference

is produced across the leads.

Applications of IR Sensor

· Thermography – According to the black body radiation law, it is possible to view the environment with or

without visible illumination using thermography

· Heating – Infrared can be used to cook and heat food items. They can take away ice from the wings of an

aircraft. They are popular in industrial field such as, print dying, forming plastics, and plastic welding.

· Spectroscopy – This technique is used to identify the molecules by analysing the constituent bonds. This

technique uses light radiation to study organic compounds.

· Meteorology – Cloud heights, calculate land and surface temperature is possible when weather satellites

are equipped with scanning radiometers.

· Photobiomodulation – This is used for chemotherapy in cancer patients. This is used to treat anti-herpes

virus.

· Climatology – Monitoring the energy exchange between the atmosphere and earth.

· Communications – Infra red laser provide light for optical fibre communication. These radiations are also

used for short range communications among mobiles and computer peripherals.
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3. UV SENSOR

 These sensors measure the intensity or power of the incident ultraviolet radiation. This form of

electromagnetic radiation has wavelengths longer than x-rays but is still shorter than visible radiation.An

active material known as polycrystalline diamond is being used for reliable ultraviolet sensing. UV

sensors can discover the exposure of environment to ultraviolet radiation.

Criteria to select a UV Sensor

 Wavelength ranges in nanometres (nm) that can be detected by the UV sensors.

 Operating temperature

 Accuracy

 Weight

 Power range

Working of UV Sensor

 The UV sensor accepts one type of energy signal and transmits different type of energy signals. To

observe and record these output signals they are directed to an electrical meter. To create graphs and

reports, the output signals are transmitted to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), and then to a

computer with software.

Examples include:

 UV phototubes are radiation-sensitive sensors supervise UV air treatments, UV water treatments, and

solar irradiance.

 Light sensors measure the intensity of incident light.

 UV spectrum sensors are charged coupled devices (CCD) utilized in scientific photography.

 Ultraviolet light detectors.

 Germicidal UV detectors.

 Photo stability sensors.

Applications of UV Sensor

 Measures the portion of the UV spectrum which sunburns human skin

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 Pharmacy

 Automobiles

 Robotics

 Printing industry for solvent handling and dyeing processes

 Chemical industry for the production, storage, and transportation of chemicals

4. TOUCH SENSOR

 A touch sensor acts as a variable resistor as per the location where it is touched. We do not give much

importance to touch sensors but they became an integral part of our life. Whether you know or not, all

touch screen devices (Mobile Phones, Tablets, Laptops, etc.) have touch sensors in them. Another

common application of touch sensor is trackpads in our laptops.

 Touch Sensors, as the name suggests, detect touch of a finger or a stylus. Often touch sensors are

classified into Resistive and Capacitive type. Almost all modern touch sensors are of Capacitive Types

as they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.

The figure is as shown below.

Figure Showing Touch Sensor Working as Variable Resistor

A touch sensor is made of:

Fully conductive substance such as copper

Insulated spacing material such as foam or plastic

Partially conductive material

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Principle and Working

 The partially conductive material opposes the flow of current. The main principle of the linear position

sensor is that the current flow is more opposed when the length of this material that must be travelled by

the current is more. As a result, the resistance of the material is varied by changing the position at which

it makes contact with the fully conductive material. Generally, software is interfaced to the touch

sensors. In such a case, a memory is being offered by the software. They can memorize the ‘last touched

position’ when the sensor is deactivated. They can memorize the ‘first touched position’ once the sensor

gets activated and understand all the values related to it. This act is similar to how one moves the mouse

and locates it at the other end of mouse pad in order to move the cursor to the far side of the screen.

Applications

The touch sensors being cost effective and durable are used in many applications such as

· Commercial – Medical, vending, Fitness and gaming

· Appliances – Oven, Washing machine/dryers, dishwashers, refrigerators

· Transportation – Cockpit fabrication and streamlining control among the vehicle manufacturers

· Fluid level sensors

· Industrial Automation – Position and liquid level sensing, human touch control in automation applications

· Consumer Electronics – Provides a new feel and level of control in various consumer products

5. PROXIMITY SENSOR

 A proximity sensor detects the presence of objects that are nearly placed without any point of contact. A

Proximity Sensor is a non-contact type sensor that detects the presence of an object. Since there is no

contact between the sensors and sensed object and lack of mechanical parts, these sensors have long

functional life and high reliability.

 The different types of proximity sensors are: Inductive Proximity sensors, Capacitive Proximity sensors,

Ultrasonic proximity sensors, photoelectric sensors, Hall-effect sensors, etc.

 Inductive Proximity sensors – They have an oscillator as input to change the loss resistance by the

proximity of an electrically conductive medium. These sensors are preferred for metal targets.
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 Capacitive Proximity sensors – They convert the electrostatic capacitance variation flanked by the

detecting electrode and the ground electrode. This occurs by approaching the nearby object with a

variation in an oscillation frequency

Working of proximity sensor

 A proximity sensor emits an electromagnetic or electrostatic field or a beam of electromagnetic radiation

(such as infrared), and waits for the return signal or changes in the field. The object which is being

sensed is known as the proximity sensor’s target

Applications

· Used in automation engineering to define operating states in process engineering plants, production

systems and automating plants

· Used in windows, and the alarm is activated when the window opens

· Used in machine vibration monitoring to calculate the difference in distance between a shaft and its

support bearing

Some of the applications of Proximity Sensors are also in Mobile Phones, Cars (Parking Sensors), industries

(object alignment), Ground Proximity in Aircrafts, etc.

Since ultrasonic sensors rely on sound rather than light for detection, it is widely used to measure water-levels,

medical scanning procedures and in the automobile industry. Ultrasonic waves can detect transparent objects

such as transparent films, glass bottles, plastic bottles, and plate glass, using its Reflective Senso

6. SMOKE AND GAS SENSORS

One of the very useful sensors in safety related applications are Smoke and Gas Sensors. Almost all offices and

industries are equipped with several smoke detectors, which detect any smoke (due to fire) and sound an alarm.

Gas Sensors are more common in laboratories, large scale kitchens and industries. They can detect different

gases like LPG, Propane, Butane, Methane (CH4), etc. Now-a-days, smoke sensors (which often can detect

smoke as well gas) are also installed in most homes as a safety measure.


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7. ALCOHOL SENSOR

 Alcohol Sensor detects alcohol. Usually, alcohol sensors are used in breathalyzer devices, which

determine whether a person is drunk or not. Law enforcement personnel uses breathalyzers to catch

drunk-and-drive culprits.

8. LIGHT SENSOR

 Sometimes also known as Photo Sensors, Light Sensors are one of the important sensors. A simple Light

Sensor available today is the Light Dependent Resistor or LDR. The property of LDR is that its

resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the ambient light i.e., when the intensity of light

increases, its resistance decreases and vise-versa. By using LDR is a circuit, we can calibrate the

changes in its resistance to measure the intensity of Light.

 There are two other Light Sensors (or Photo Sensors) which are often used in complex electronic system

design. They are Photo Diode and Photo Transistor. All these are Analog Sensors.

APPLICATIONS OF SENSORS

Sensors are used in many kinds of applications such as:

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· Shock Detection

· Machine monitoring applications

· Vehicle dynamics

· Low power applications

· Structural Dynamics

· Medical Aerospace

· Nuclear Instrumentation

· As pressure sensor in Mobiles ‘touch key pad’

· Lamps which brighten or dim on touching its base

· Touch sensitive buttons in elevators