Analog Electronics

Lecture -26
19-03-2024

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

 Switched Capacitor filter

Phase 1:
Capacitor C is charged to V1 with S1 closed, S2 open.
Phase 2:
The charge is transferred from C to V2 via switch S2 closed, with S1
open.
The two switches never closed at the same time. So the switches needs
two non-overlapping clock phases as shown in Fig (b).
Assume that v1(t) and v2(t) are nearly constant during time T.
The average value of current i1(t) flowing from v1(t) into the
capacitor C is given by
T
1
i1av =  i1 (t )dt
T 0
Since i1 (t ) only flows during the time 0  t  T/2
q1 (T / 2) − q1 (0) C VC (T / 2) − VC (0)
T /2 T /2
1 1
i1av =
T 0 1
i (t ) dt =
T 
0
dq1 (t ) =
T
=
T
VC(T/2) is equal to the value of V1(T/2) and
VC(0) is equal to the value of V2(0).

CV1 (T / 2) − V2 (0)
Therefore i1av =
T
If v1(t) and v2(t) are approximately constant over the period T, then
V1(0)  V1(T/2)  V1(T)  V1 and V2(0)  V2(T/2)  V2(T)  V2

CV1 − V2  V1 − V2 T 1
i1av = = where R eq = =
T Req C fC
Switched Capacitor filter
 Switched Capacitor integrator

TC2 C2
Time constant = R eq C 2 = =
C1 C1 f
Switched Capacitor integrator
 Switched Capacitor integrator

The charging current I = f c C1Vi

f c C1
 Vout
=− for inverting integrator
Vi
jC2
f c C1
 Vout
= for non - inverting integrator
Vi
jC2
Second order filter using integrators
 Second order filter using integrators

K02 R4
T (s) = 2 where K = -
s + 2k0 s + c
2
R1
1
2k = ( R1 R2C1C2 )1/ 2
R3C2
1
 =
2
0
R1 R2C1C2
c
Q= = 0 R3C2
BW
Second order filter using integrators
Fig. A two-integrator-loop active-RC biquad and its switched-capacitor counterpart.
Block diagram of IC MF10 (National Semiconductor)
IC MF10 as Low –pass filter

f CLK = 50 f c or 100f c
R3 R2
Q= Gain = −
R1 R1
 Switched-Capacitor Circuit Advantages

Switched-capacitor circuits allow for the design of tightly controlled resistance

on-chip, based on the clock frequency and capacitor value. This circuit design
approach has multiple advantages, including:

• Saves space while achieving high resistance values. Using actual resistors
would require a larger amount of silicon space.
• Achieve a frequency response accuracy of the order of 0.1% with switched-
capacitor filters. Matching similar IC components(such as capacitor to
capacitor) instead of two different components(such as capacitor to resistor)
allows for this level of precision. In contrast, a continuous-time filter that uses
RC time constants to control the frequency can cause frequency variations of
as much as 20% because of the mismatch between resistors and capacitors.
• Easier to reliably implement with a broader range of values, making it an ideal
replacement for traditional resistors in any integrated circuit application.
Similarly, it’s possible to adjust the equivalent resistor value by changing the
clock speed.
 Voltage Regulators

1. Introduction

2. Performance measures of voltage regulators

3. Voltage Regulator circuits

(i) Zener Diode Regulator

(ii) Emitter Follower Regulator

(iii) Feedback Voltage Regulator

(iv) Feedback Voltage Regulator using Op-amp

4. Short Circuit Protection

5. Foldback Current Limiting

6. Thermal Shutdown
 Introduction

Fig 7.1 (a) Block diagram of ac to dc converter

Fig 7.1 (b) Block diagram of dc to dc converter

 2. Performance measures of voltage regulators

The factors for poor regulation are:

(i) The line voltage changes and the ripple content
in the dc voltage

(ii) The voltage drop across the internal resistance

of the regulator due to load current changes

(iii) The temperature dependence of the device

parameters which caused change in the
output voltage

The change in output voltage of a regulator can be defined as

Vo = S V Vi + R o I L + ST T
2. Performance measures of voltage regulators

The change in output voltage of a regulator can be defined as

Vo = S V Vi + R o I L + ST T
where Sv is the voltage stability factor, Ro is the output resistance
and ST is the temperature coefficient

Vo Vo
Sv = Ro = −
Vi I L =0, T =0
I L Vi =0, T =0

Vo
ST =
T Vi =0, I L =0
2. Performance measures of voltage regulators

Fig 7.2 Voltage variations in ideal and practical

regulators with load current
3. Voltage Regulator Circuits

(i) Zener Diode Regulator

 Zener Diode Regulator

The zener diode voltage VZ remains almost

constant in the breakdown region so long as

I z (min)  I z  I z (max)

PZ
where I z(max) is decided by the power rating PZ of the zener diode, I z(max) =
VZ

An ideal zener diode acts as a constant voltage source, Vz.

ΔVz
A practical zener diode has a finite zener resistance, rz =
ΔI z
 Zener Diode Regulator
The value of Rs is selected such that it fulfill the following requirements:

1) When the input voltage is minimum and load current is maximum,

Iz is sufficient to keep the zener diode under breakdown region.

2) When the input voltage is maximum and the load current is minimum, the
zener diode current must not exceed the maximum value(Iz(max)).

The optimum value of Rs can be found using the following equations:

Vin (max) − V z Vin (max) − V z
I z (max)  − I L (min) Rs (min) =
Rs I z (max) + I L (min)
Vin (min) − V z Vin (min) − V z
I z (min)  − I L (max) and Rs (max) =
Rs I z (min) + I L (max)

Hence Rs should be chosen such that Rs(min) < Rs < Rs(max)

Rs = Rs (max)  Rs (min)
 (i) Zener Diode Regulator
Sv and Ro can be obtained by replacing zener diode by its
equivalent zener resistance rz. The values are:

Vo Vo
Sv = Ro =
Vi I L =0, T =0
I L Vi =0, T =0

Sv =
rz
Ro = Rs || rz
Rs + rz
Disadvantages:
1. The maximum load current is limited to Iz(max) – Iz(min)
2. A large amount of power is wasted in the zener resistance and series
resistance.
3. The regulation factor Sv and output resistance Ro are not very low.
 Voltage Regulators
1. Introduction

2. Performance measures of voltage regulators

3. Voltage Regulator circuits

(i) Zener Diode Regulator

(ii) Emitter Follower Regulator

(iii) Feedback Voltage Regulator

(iv) Feedback Voltage Regulator using Op-amp

4. Short Circuit Protection

5. Foldback Current Limiting

6. Thermal Shutdown