THE CHILD ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES

PART 1 - Introduction
STUDY GUIDE NO. 1: Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles - were put together by the American Psychological Association.
The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the learning process. The 14 principles have
the following aspects:
● They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the learner rather than
conditioned habits or physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external
environment or contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.
● The principles were intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world learning situations. Thus,
they are best understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation.
● The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2) motivational and affective,
(3) developmental and social, and (4) individual difference factors influencing learners and learning.
● Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners – from children, to teachers, to administrators, to
parents, and to community members involved in our educational system.

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

1. Nature of the learning process - The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an
intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals of the learning process - The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance,
can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge - The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
4. Strategic thinking - The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies
to achieve complex learning goals.
5. Thinking about thinking - Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking.
6. Context of learning - Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and
instructional Practices.

MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning - What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s
motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and
goals, and habits if thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn - The learner’s creativity higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal
interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort - Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and
guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without
coercion.

DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS

10. Developmental influences on learning - As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints
for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual,
emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
11. Social influences on learning - Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS

12. Individual differences in learning - Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning
that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning and diversity - Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
14. Standards and assessment - Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner
as well as learning process – including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment – are integral parts of the
learning process.

; Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled into five areas:
1. The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning. The learner’s
previous knowledge will influence new learning specifically on how he represents new information makes
associations and filters new experiences.
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and
behaviors in order to learn more effectively (metacognition).
3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation (form within), reasons for wanting to learn, personal
goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner
has his own combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual.

PART 2 - Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development

STUDY GUIDE NO. 2: Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches

TWO APPROACHES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

A. Traditional - The traditional approach emphasizes extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no
change in adulthood, and decline in late old age.
B. Life-span - The life-span approach emphasizes developmental change during adulthood as well as childhood.

Characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective

By Paul Baltes (Santrock, 2002) – an expert in life-span development

1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood.

2. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change.
3. Development is multidimensional. Development is consists of biological, cognitive and socio- emotional
dimensions.

Biological processes involve changes in the individual’s physical nature. Some common biological processes are
height and weight gain, hormonal changes in the period of puberty, and cardiovascular decline when approaching
adulthood.

Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and language. Some examples are
developing from mere sounds to a word becoming two words, the two words becoming a sentence, memorizing
first prayer, singing Bayang Magiliw in every flag ceremony to imagining what it would be like to be a teacher or a
pilot, playing chess and solving a complex math problem.

Socio-emotional processes include changes in the individual’s relationships with other people, changes in
emotions, and changes in personality. Some examples are responding with a sweet smile when affectionately
touched and frowned when displeased and even showed tantrum when they could not get or do what they wanted.
From aggressive children, they may develop into a fine lady or a gentleman or otherwise, depending on a myriad
of factors. They may fall in love and get inspired for life or may end up betrayed, deserted and desperate
afterwards.

These biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes are inextricably intertwined. While these processes are
studied separately, the effect of one processes are studied separately, the effect of one process or factor on a
person’s development is not isolated from the other processes.
1. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing world. Individuals respond to and act
on contexts.
2. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Growth, maintenance and regulation are three (3)
goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental stages.

; Each developmental arena influences the other in myriad ways. A neglected child suffers malnutrition, which
impacts puberty. That child is at risk for delayed cognitive development, since a huge portion of language and
intellectual development requires nurturance prior to beginning school. This child is at risk of teasing and
frustration at school, which can lead to behavioral problems that stand in the way of forming positive relationships.
This child has already learned not to trust, so he or she will encounter obstacles to social development. When
grown, this person will experience difficulty maintaining a career.
The good news is that people are capable of growing and changing at any stage. Just one positive influence in
that child’s life can be the catalyst to help him or her reverse the cycle completely. Lifespan development is a
dynamic journey. Even when people have no control over certain changes, they most often have control over how
they respond to them. The never-ending cycles of influence make lifespan development a fascinating topic to
study.

STUDY GUIDE NO. 3: The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

Concept of Developmental Tasks

In each stage of development, a certain task or tasks are expected of every individual. Robert Havighurst defines
developmental task as one that “arises at a certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to
happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with
later tasks.” (Havighurst, 1972).

Developmental Stages
There are eight (8) developmental stages given by Santrock. The eight (8) developmental stages cited by Santrock
are the same with Havighurst’s six (6) developmental stages only that Havighurst did not include prenatal period.
Havighurst combined them as two (2) separate stages.

The Developmental Tasks (Santrock, 2002)

1. Prenatal Period (from conception to birth)
2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months)
3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade I)
4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school years)
5. Adolescence (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age)
6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s)
7. Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age)
8. Late adulthood (60s and above)

; The definitions of the three stages of development are based on both research and cultural influences.
Implications for schooling are drawn from what is known about how children develop, but it should be emphasized
that growth is influenced by context, and schooling is a primary context of childhood. Just as educators and others
should be aware of the ways in which a five-year-old's reasoning is different from a fifteen-year-old's, it is also
important to be aware that the structure and expectations of schooling influence the ways in which children grow
and learn.

STUDY GUIDE NO. 4: Issues On Human Development

1. Nature versus Nurture – Which has a more significant influence on human development? Nature or nurture?
Nature refers to an individual’s biological inheritance. Nurture refers to environmental experiences.
2. Continuity versus Discontinuity – Does development involve gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct
changes (discontinuity). To make it more concrete, here is a question: Is our development like that of a seedling
gradually growing into an acacia tree? Or is it more like that of a caterpillar becoming a butterfly?

3. Stability versus Change – Is development best described as involving stability or as involving change? Are we
what our first experiences have made of us or do we develop into someone different from who we were at an
earlier point in development? Both genes and environment are necessary for a person even to exist. Without
genes, there is no person; without environment, there is no person (Scarr and Weinberg, 1980, quoted by
Santrock, 2002). Heredity and environment operate together – or cooperate and interact – to produce a person’s
intelligence, temperament, height, weight… ability to read and so on.

; If heredity and environment interact, which one has a greater influence or contribution, heredity or environment?
The relative contributions of heredity and environment are not additive. So we can’t say 50% is a contribution of
heredity and 50% of environment. Neither is it correct to say that full genetic expression happens once, around
conception or birth, after which we take our genetic legacy into the world to see how far it gets us. Genes produce
proteins throughout the life span, in many different environments. Or they don’t produce these proteins, depending
on how harsh or nourishing those environments are. (Santrock, 2002).

STUDY GUIDE 5: Research in Child and Adolescent Development

Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research

Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important knowledge to use in decision-making for the benefit of
learners and their families. Well-informed teachers are able to use and integrate the most authoritative research
findings. Research enables teachers to come up with informed decisions on what to teach and how to teach. This
involves decisions related to educational policies, curriculum, effective teaching-learning processes, and even
those involving research, too. It can help us, teachers, to be more knowledgeable about how to fit our teaching
with the developmental levels of our learners.

Teachers as Researchers
The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation writers. It is for students and teachers,
too. Let us learn how to conduct research methods and designs with focus on child and adolescent development.

The Scientific Method

One important principle in research is adherence to the scientific method, since research is a systematic and a
logical process. As such, researchers basically follow the scientific method. Dewey gave us 5 steps of the scientific
method. They are as follows:
1. Identify and define the problem
2. Determine the hypothesis
3. Collect and analyze data
4. Formulate conclusions
5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis

Research Designs
Researches that are done with the high level of quality and integrity provide us with valuable information about
child and adolescent development. To be able to conduct quality research, it is important that you know various
research designs and different data- gathering techniques used by developmental researchers. Some are as
follows:
1. Case Study. An in-depth look at an individual.
2. Correlational Study. A research design that determines associations.
3. Experimental. A research design that determines the cause-and-effect relationships.
4. Naturalistic Observation. A research design that focuses on children’s experiences in natural settings.
5. Longitudinal. This research design studies and follows through a single group over a period of time. The same
individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years, or more.
 6. Cross-sectional. A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time.
7. Sequential. This is the combined longitudinal approaches to learn about life-span development (Schaie, 1993
cited by Santrock, 2002).
8. Action Research. It is a reflective process of progressive problem-solving led by individuals working with others
in teams or as part of a “community of practice” to improve the way they address issues and solve problems.

Ethical Principles
To serve the genuine purposes of research, teacher researchers are subject to ethical principles. Just as we have
the Code of Ethics that governs the conduct of research. These ethical standards serve as reminders that as
researchers, we should strive to protect the subjects of our study and to maintain the integrity of our research.
Details of these ethical principles are found in documents such as the following:
1. Ethical standards of the American Educational Research Association
2. Ethical Standards for Research with Children – Society for Research in Child Development (USA)
3. Standards of the American Psychological Association Concerning Research

The Data Privacy Act of 2012 (R. 10173)

This law was passed in the Philippines in 2012 “to protect the fundamental human right of privacy of
communication while ensuring free flow of information to promote innovation and growth.”

The law states that the collection of personal data “must be a declared, specified, and legitimate purpose and
that... consent is required prior to the collection of all personal data.”

; Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research shows a shift from thinking about teacher research as
something done to teachers to something done by teachers (Zeichner 1999; Lampert, 2000).

PART 3 - Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories

STUDY GUIDE NO. 6: Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory and Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

As a person grows, the personality is also formed. Many psychologists present different views about how
personality develops. As mentioned, Freud presents a very interesting theory about personality, its components
and development.

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

1. Oral Stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral stage, the child is focused on
oral pleasures (sucking). Too much of little satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is
shown in an increased focus on oral activities.
2. Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is the anus. The child finds
satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. Through society’s expectations, particularly the parents, the child
needs to work on toilet training.
3. Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During the preschool age, children
become interested in what makes boys and girls different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their
genitals.
4. Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed. The children’s focus is
the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during this
stage.
5. Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of puberty when
sexual urges are once again awakened. In the early stages, adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the
opposite sex peers, with the pleasure centered on the genitals.

Freud’s Personality Components

Sigmund Freud described the personality structures as having three components, the id, the ego and the
superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id, followed by the ego, and last to develop is the superego.
● Id – focused in pleasure principle
● Ego – focused in reality principle
● Superego – thinking beyond “moral”
●
Erogenous zones – specific pleasure areas

Psychosocial Development of Erik Erikson – 8 stages of life

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth-1)
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt (1-3)
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12)
5. Identity vs. Role confusion (12-18)
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-40)
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-60)
8. Ego integrity vs. Despair (60-end)

Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic epistemo-logy” because he was interested in how
knowledge developed in human organisms.
Basic Cognitive Concepts
1. Schema. Refers to the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment. It is an individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience.
2. Assimilation. The process of fitting new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or
schema.
3. Accommodation. The process of creating new schema.
4. Equilibration. It is achieving balance between assimilation and accommodation.

Piagets’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage (from birth to infancy)
Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage (from about two to seven years old)
Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage (approximately between 8-11 years or the elementary years)
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage (between 12 and 15 years)

STUDY GUIDE NO. 7: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development and Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Theory

Multiple Intelligences Theory of Howard Gardner

1. Visual-Spatial Intelligence People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things.
These individuals are often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.
Strengths: Visual and spatial judgment
Characteristics: People with visual-spatial intelligence:
● Read and write for enjoyment
● Are good at putting puzzles together
● Interpret pictures, graphs, and charts well
● Enjoy drawing, painting, and the visual arts
● Recognize patterns easily

2. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well,
both when writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing
information, and reading.
Strengths: Words, language, and writing
 Characteristics: People with linguistic-verbal intelligence:
● Remember written and spoken information
● Enjoy reading and writing
● Debate or give persuasive speeches
● Are able to explain things well
● Use humor when telling stories

3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at
reasoning, recognizing patterns, and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually
about numbers, relationships, and patterns.
Strengths: Analyzing problems and mathematical operations
Characteristics: People with logical-mathematical intelligence:
● Have excellent problem-solving skills
● Enjoy thinking about abstract ideas
● Like conducting scientific experiments
● Can solve complex computations

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body
movement, performing actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent
hand-eye coordination and dexterity. Strengths: Physical movement, motor control
Characteristics: People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:
● Are skilled at dancing and sports
● Enjoy creating things with his or her hands
● Have excellent physical coordination
● Remember by doing, rather than hearing or seeing

5. Musical Intelligence People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and
sounds. They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and performance.
Strengths: Rhythm and music
Characteristics: People with musical intelligence:
● Enjoy singing and playing musical instruments
● Recognize musical patterns and tones easily
● Remember songs and melodies
● Have a rich understanding of musical structure, rhythm and notes

6. Interpersonal Intelligence Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and
interacting with other people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and
intentions of those around them.
Strengths: Understanding and relating to other people
Characteristics: People with interpersonal intelligence:
● Communicate well verbally
● Are skilled at nonverbal communication
● See situations from different perspectives
● Create positive relationships with others
● Resolve conflicts in group settings

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of
their own emotional states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including
daydreaming, exploring relationships with others, and assessing their personal strengths.
Strengths: Introspection and self-reflection
Characteristics: People with intrapersonal intelligence:
● Analyze their strengths and weaknesses well
● Enjoy analyzing theories and ideas
● Have excellent self-awareness
● Understand the basis for his or her own motivations and feelings

8. Naturalistic Intelligence Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner's theory and has been met with more
resistance than his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this type of
intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing, exploring the environment, and
learning about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle changes to their
environments.
Strengths: Finding patterns and relationships to nature
Characteristics: People with naturalistic intelligence:
● Are interested in subjects such as botany, biology, and zoology
● Categorize and catalog information easily
● Enjoy camping, gardening, hiking, and exploring the outdoors
● Dislikes learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature

9. Existentialist Intelligence

; Howard Gardner (1983) is a very important theorist for students, teachers, and education. His work with multiple
intelligences allows students to realize their strengths in learning and gives teachers the opportunity to understand
the dynamics of the classroom.
; Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of a ninth known as
"existentialist intelligence.

; In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner theorizes that people do not
have just an intellectual capacity, but have many kinds of intelligence, including musical, interpersonal, spatial-
visual, and linguistic intelligences.

STUDY GUIDE NO. 8: Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory and Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

The key theme of Vygotsky's theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive development.
He believed that individual development could not be understood without looking into the social and cultural
context within which development happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky's term for the appropriate assistance given by
the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task.

When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under a teacher who used the Socratic method. This method
was a systematic question and answer approach that allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice
higher levels of understanding. This experience, together with his interest in literature and his work as a teacher,
led him to recognize social interaction and language as two central factors in cognitive development. His theory
became known as the Socio-Cultural Theory of Development.

Piaget and Vygotsky

Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in between the 1920's and 30's but they had clear
differences in their views about cognitive development. Since Piaget was taken up already in the preceding
module, it would be easier now to see how his views compare with Vygotsky's.

Jean Piaget Lev Vygotsky

More individual in focus More social in focus

Believed that there are universal stagesDidofnotcognitive

propose stages but emphasized on cultural factors in
development cognitive development

Did not give much emphasis on language Stressed the role of language in cognitive development
 SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Social Interaction
Vygotsky states the importance of cultural and social context for learning. Cognitive development stems from
social interactions from guided learning within the zone of proximal development as children and their partner's co-
construct knowledge. In contrast, Piaget maintains that cognitive development stems largely from independent
explorations in which children construct knowledge of their own. For Vygotsky, the environment in which children
grow up will influence how they think and what they think about.

2. Cultural Factors
Vygotsky suggested that cultures are actually formed through the use of tools and symbols, and that this key
distinction is what differentiates the human race from that of animals. Intelligence is achieved when a learner can
“internalize” the tools that are being provided in the culture itself. When the tools of a culture evolve and emerge,
the learners’ ability to grow as individuals and increase their knowledge base is broadened. As such, according to
the Sociocultural Learning Theory, it's important for instructors to understand the human mind from a historical
point of view as well as a cultural one.

3. Language
According to the Sociocultural Learning Theory, language is a direct result of the symbols and tools that emerge
within a culture. An individual is able to learn language through a variety of social events, scenarios and
processes, which all result in the acquisition of language. This aspect of the Sociocultural Learning Theory relies
upon the idea that learners go through three stages of speech development. First, they must engage in the social
environment, which is known as “social speech” and begins at the age of 2. Next, they will learn about “private
speech”, which occurs when learners voice their thoughts aloud, and begins at the age of 3. The last is “inner
speech”, which takes the form of ideas that remain within our minds and directly impact our behavior or thoughts,
and begins at the age of 7.

4. Zone of Proximal Development

This is the “gap” or distance that exists between a learner's possible educational development, which is
determined through problem solving activities, and the development that actually takes place. This is assessed
when learners are asked to engage in problem solving tasks under the supervision of an instructor. Their
responses and capabilities are then compared to that of their peers. This assessment is based upon a spectrum,
wherein what learners are capable of doing without any assistance is at one end of the spectrum, and what they
can do while being assisted is at the other. In essence, the zone allows instructors to learn what a student is not
yet capable of doing or has not yet learned, but can be taught with the proper instruction.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral development (Lawrence Kohlberg)

Level 1: Pre-conventional (younger than 6)
➢ obedience and punishment
➢ self interest
Level 2: Conventional (7 to 11 years)
➢ Interpersonal accord and conformity
➢ Authority and maintaining social order
Level 3: Post Conventional (11 years on)
➢ Social contract
➢ Universal ethical principle

STUDY GUIDE NO. 9: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Bronfenbrenner's model also known as the Bioecological Systems theory presents child development within the
context of relationship systems that comprise the child's environment. It describes multipart layers of environment
that has an effect on the development of the child. Each layer is further made up of different structures. The term
"bioecological" points out that a child's own biological make-up impacts as a key factor in one's development.
Through the child's growing and developing body and the in interplay between his immediate family/community
environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes or conflict in any one layer
 will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child's development then, we must look not only at the child and her
immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.

Urie Bronfenbrenner conceptualized four ecological systems that an individual interacted with, each nested within
the others. Listed from closest to the person to furthest:
1. Microsystem — The prefix “micro” comes from the Greek for “small,” and is the first and most immediate layer of
the nested systems. It encompasses an individual’s human relationships, interpersonal interactions and immediate
surroundings. An example of this system would be the relationship between an individual and his or her parents,
siblings, or school environment.
2. Mesosystem — The second layer from the individual, surrounding the microsystem and encompassing the
different interactions between the characters of the microsystem. For example, the relationship between the
individual’s family and their school teachers or administrators. In order for an interaction to be considered part of
the mesosystem, it has to be a direct interaction between two aspects of the microsystem that influences the
development of the individual.
3. Exosystem — The exosystem is the third layer, and contains elements of the microsystem which do not affect the
individual directly, but may do so indirectly. For example, if a parent were to lose their job or have their hours cut
back, this would affect their child in an indirect way such as financial strain or increased parental stress.
4. Macrosystem — The prefix “macro” comes from the Greek for “large,” and is used because this system was
thought to be all- encompassing. The fourth and outermost layer of the bioecological model, it encompasses
cultural and societal beliefs and programming that influence an individual’s development. Examples of this would
include gender norms or religious influence.

PART 3 - Development of the Learners at Various Stages

STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 10: UNIT 1: Pre-Natal Period
The Stages of Pre-Natal Development
Pre-natal development is divided into three (3) periods germinal, embryonic and fetal.
1. Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after conception) - This includes the a) creation of the zygote, b) continued cell
division and c) the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. The following are the details of development during
this period:
a. 24 to 30 hours after fertilization - the male (sperm) and female (egg) chromosome unite
b. 36 hours - the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two (2); 2 cells c)
c. 48 hours (2 days) - 2 cells become 4 cells
d. 72 hours (3 days) - 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16-32 cells
e. 96 hours (4 days) - hollow ball of 64-
f. 4-5 days - inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus
g. 6-7 days - blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus
h) 11-15 days’ blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted in it (implantation)

In the germinal period, the differentiation of cells already begins as inner and outer layers of the organism are
formed. The blastocyst, the inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period, develops later into the
embryo. The trophoblast, the outer layer of cells that develops also during the germinal period, later provides
nutrition and support for the embryo.

2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception) - In this stage, the name of the mass cells, zygote, become
embryo The following developments take place:

a. cell differentiation intensifies

b. life-support systems for the embryo develop and
c. organs appear

As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells are formed. The embryo's endoderm, the
inner layer of cells, develops into the digestive and respiratory systems. The outer layer of cells is divided into two
parts the ectoderm and the mesoderm. The ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous system,
sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts (nails, hair). The mesoderm is the middle layer which
becomes the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive systems. This process of organ formation
during the first two months of pre-natal development is called organogenesis.

As the three layers of the embryo form, the support systems for the embryo develop rapidly. These life-support
systems are the placenta, the umbilical cord and the amnion. The placenta is a life-support system that consists of
a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do
not join. The umbilical cord contains two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the placenta. The amnion
is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats. All these embryo life-
support systems develop from the fertilized egg and not from the mother's body.

3. Fetal period (2 months to 7 months after conception) - Growth and development continue dramatically during
this period. The details of the developmental process are as follows (Santrock, 2002);

a. 3 months after conception fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1 ounce; fetus has become active,
moves its arms and legs, opens and closes its mouth, and moves its head; the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin
can now be distinguished and also the upper arms, lower arms, hands, and lower limbs; the genitals can now be
identified as male or female.
b. 4 months after conception fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4 to 7 ounces; growth spurt occurs in body's
lower parts; pre- natal reflexes are stronger; mother the feels arm and leg movements for the first time.
c. 5 months after conception - fetus is about 12 inches long; weighs close to a pound; structures of the skin
(fingernails, toenails) have formed; fetus is more active.
d. 6 months after conception- fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs one and half pound; eyes and eyelids are
completely formed; fine layer of head covers the head; grasping reflex is present and irregular movements occur.
e. 7 months after conception fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs 3 pounds
f. 8 and 9 months after conception fetus grows longer and gains substantial weight, about 4 pounds

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects. A teratogen is what which causes
birth defects. It comes from the Greek word "tera" which means "monster".

Clusters of hazards to pre-natal development:

1. Prescription and nonprescription drugs
2. Psychoactive drugs
3. Environmental hazards
4. Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles), syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety
and stress age, (too early or too late, beyond 30)

Human Life Begins at Conception

That which is in the mother's womb is indeed a developing human being. An unborn baby of eight (8) weeks is not
essentially different from one of eighteen (18) weeks or twenty-eight (28) weeks from conception the zygote, the
embryo and the fetus are undeniably human life.

Human life begins from the moment of conception. All that we have and all that we are have been there at the
moment of conception! The fact that you have brown eyes and black, straight or curly hair and the fact that you will
turn bald at age 50 have been there already at the moment of conception. What were added in the process of
development is nutrition remember the film on abortion that I once saw, "The Silent I Scream." The mother
submitted herself to a medical doctor for abortion in her third month of pregnancy. When the abortionist inserted
his scalpel into the woman's womb to crush the head of the fetus, very clearly in that film, the fetus had his/her
mouth open like he was screaming for help as he evaded the deadly scalpel of the abortionist. That's why the film
was given the title "The Silent Scream." This only means that the developing being in the womb is a human being
not just a conglomeration of cells or tissues.
 ; Prenatal development (from Latin natalis 'relating to birth') includes the development of the embryo and of the
fetus during a viviparous animal's gestation. Prenatal development starts with fertilization, in the germinal stage of
embryonic development, and continues in fetal development until birth.

STUDY GUIDE NO. 11: UNIT 2: Infancy and Toddler

Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns

The cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal growth from conception to 5 months when the head grows more than the
body. This cephalocaudal trend of growth that applies to the development of the fetus also applies in the first
months after birth. Infants learn to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs. The same pattern occurs in the
head area because the top parts of the head - the eyes and the brain-grow faster than the lower parts such as the
jaw.

The proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth from 5 months to birth when the fetus grows from the inside of the
body outwards. This also applies in the first months after birth as shown in the earlier maturation of muscular
control of the trunk and arms, followed by that of the hands and fingers. When referring to motor development, the
proximodistal trend refers to the development of motor skills from the center of the body outward.

Height and Weight

• It's normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight within a couple of weeks of birth. That
is due to the baby's adjustment to neonatal feeding. Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting, they
grow rapidly.
• Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first six months. After six months,
breastfed babies usually weigh less than bottle-fed babies.
• In general, an infant's length increases by about 30 percent in the first five months.
• A baby's weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second year of life..
• Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a natural curve of steady
development.

Brain Development
• Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life are the spreading connections of
dendrites to each other. Remember neurons, dendrites, axons, synapses? You discussed them in your General
Psychology class.
Myelination or myelinization, the process by which the axons are covered and insulated by layers of fat cells,
begins prenatally and continues after birth. The process of myelination or myelinization increases the speed at
which information travels through the nervous system.
• At birth, the newborn's brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By the second birthday, the brain is about
75% of its adult weight.
• Shortly after birth, a baby's brain produces trillions more connections between neurons than it can possibly use.
The brain eliminates connections that are seldom or never used (Santrock, 2002). The infant's brain is literally
waiting for experiences to determine how connections are made.

● A study on rats conducted by Mark Rosenzweig in 1969 revealed that the brains of rats that grew up in the
enriched environment developed better than the brains of the animals reared in standard or isolated conditions.
The brains of the "enriched" animals weighed more, had thicker layers, had more neuronal connections and had
higher levels of neuro chemical activity. Such finding implies that enriching the lives of infants who live in
impoverished environments can produce positive changes in their development (Santrock, 2002). Depressed brain
activity has been found in children who grew up in a depressed environment (Circhetti, 2001, cited by Santrock,
2002)

Motor development
 Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to gross motor skills and fine
motor skills.

Reflexes
● The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course automatic and serve as survival mechanisms before
they have the opportunity to learn. Many reflexes which are present at birth will generally subside within a few
months as the baby grows and matures.
● There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that babies have are:

Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the roof of an infant's mouth. Infants have
a strong sucking reflex which helps to ensure they can latch unto a bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very
strong in some infants and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.

Rooting Reflex: The rooting reflex is most evident when an infant's cheek is stroked. The baby responds by turning
his or her head in the direction of the touch and opening their mouth for feeding.

Gripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The strength of this grip is strong, and most
babies can support their entire weight in their grip.

Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant responds by curling his or her toes. When
the outer sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant will respond by spreading out their toes.

Startle/Moro Reflex: Infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by throwing their arms and legs out, and
throwing their heads back. Most infants will usually cry when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back into their
bodies.

Galant Reflex: The galant reflex is shown when an infant's middle or lower back is stroked next to the spinal cord.
The baby will respond by curving his or her body toward the side which is being stroked.
Tonic Neck Reflex: The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who are placed on their abdomens. Whichever
side the child's head is facing, the limbs on that side will straighten, while the opposite limbs will curl. Gross Motor
Skills

It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic changes in the infant's first year of life. This
dramatic motor development is shown in babies unable to even lift their heads to being able to grab things off the
cabinet, to chase the ball and to walk away from parent.

Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skills, are skills that involve a refined use of the small muscles controlling the hand, fingers, and thumb.
The development of these skills allows one to be able to complete tasks such as writing, drawing, and buttoning.

The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that involve precise eye-hand coordination. The
development of reaching and grasping becomes more refined during the first two years of life. Initially, infants
show only crude shoulder and elbow movements, but later they show wrist movements, hand rotation and
coordination.

● Cognitive development of infants evolves in orientation from becoming focused on themselves to becoming object
or world- oriented, from one that is action-based to one that is mentally-based, from one that does not involve
much of coordination of schemes to one involving intentionality, novelty and curiosity and from a thinking that is
purely sensorimotor to a symbolic one.
● Piaget's substages are termed circular because the adaptive behavior to the world involves repeated actions.
Circular re actions are attempts to repeat an event that the baby likes. Circular reactions serve as the building
blocks for intelligence (Pasek, P and Golinkoff, R, 2003).
● Primary circular reactions are oriented toward the infant's own body, whereas secondary circular reactions are
aimed toward the environment including others. Here is an example of a primary circular reaction: at first, by
accident, the baby gets her thumb in her mouth. But she doesn't know how to do it again. She waves her hand
around and, after many attempts, eventually succeeds in doing it again. Gradually, she learns how to do it at will
(Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff, 2003).
● Secondary circular reactions are repetitive actions that involve recreating events which 4-10 month old babies
observe out side of their own bodies, such as making their mobile crib shake by kicking their legs (Pasek, K and R,
2003).
● Tertiary circular reactions, seen from approximately 10 to 18 months, is when a baby does things over and over
again, just a little differently each time. e. When a baby seems to enjoy dropping the spoon over and over again in
many different ways, a proof of the creation of novel variations in events. Piaget described the baby at this stage A
"the scientist, When parents don't understand their child's behavior, they see this act as abusive and get frustrated.
● From dropping the spoon many times in many different ways, the baby discovers a pattern "objects fall down not
up." They create the patterns with their repetitive actions and then evaluate them. Babies are born pattern seekers
(Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff, 2003).
● "Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant's most important accomplishments, according to
Piaget." Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when the objects are not
immediately perceptible through the senses. Before the infant's acquisition of the sense of object permanence, the
principle that applies is "out of sight, out of mind."

There are some criticisms of Piaget's theory on cognitive development. One criticism from other developmental
theorists is his fundamental assumption that cognitive development occurs in fixed sequence of discontinuous
spurts across task domains, tasks, and contexts. Many theorists (e. Brainerd, 1978) believe that cognitive
development occurs as a continuous process rather than in discontinuous stages of development. Recent studies
in the cognitive development of infants support the view that Piaget underestimated young infants' cognitive ability.
Furthermore, Piaget's methods of research were said to be quite loose, the fact that he simply observed his three
children and a few others which were limited only to European children.

Emotional well-being during the early years has a powerful impact on social relationships. Children who are
emotionally healthy are better able to establish and maintain positive relationships with adults as well as with
peers. Social-emotional development is essential to a young child’s sense of well-being. Their first relationships
help shape who they are, who they become, and their understanding of the world. The important people in young
children’s lives help lay the foundation for a range of social- emotional skills such as:
● Self-regulation
● Empathy
● Turn-taking and sharing
● Positive relationships with adults and peers

Social-Emotional Milestones
Through early relationships and with nurturing, responsive interactions, infants and toddlers learn ways of being in
relationships, how to get their needs and wants met, and how to identify and regulate emotions. Because these
skills develop together, this area of development is referred to as social-emotional development. Below is a chart
that highlights how infants and toddlers develop social-emotional skills at different ages. Keep in mind that
individual differences exist when it comes to the precise age at which infants and toddlers meet these milestones.
As highlighted in the Cognitive, Physical, and Communication courses, milestones are not checklists with which to
judge children’s development. Rather, they provide a guide for when to expect certain skills or behaviors to
emerge in young children so you are ready to meet their needs. Think of milestones as guidelines to help you
understand and identify typical patterns of growth and development in infants and toddlers or to help you know
when and what to look for as they develop. You can continue to use your knowledge of these milestones to help
meet the needs of infants and toddlers in your care. Even though the skills highlighted in the chart develop in a
predictable sequence over the first three years of life, each infant and toddler is unique. Your goal is to help all
infants and toddlers grow and learn to their potential.
 STUDY GUIDE NO. 12: UNIT 3:Early Childhood (The Preschooler)

Physical Development
● There are significant changes in physical growth of preschoolers.
● The preschoolers' physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross and fine motor skills.
● Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age.
● Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important.
● Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth for the preschoolers and development of
preschoolers.
● Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms can thrive well with the appropriate adaptations made in
the classroom materials and activities.

Cognitive Development
● Preschoolers engage in symbolic and intuitive thinking.
● Brain connections are made when preschoolers interact with the environment.
● Preschoolers' language development occurs in four areas: phonology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics.
● Vygotsky believed that language and social interaction are very important to cognitive development.
● Preschoolers improve in their ability in process information.
● Preschoolers' cognitive development is marked by the emergence of a theory of mind.

Socio-Emotional Development
Socio-emotional development is crucial in the preschool years. We hear a lot of parents and teachers and
preschool administrators say that attending preschool is more for "socialization" than fot formal academic learning.
There is wisdom in this. During the preschool years, children learn about their ever-widening environment.
Preschoolers now discover their new roles outside their home. They become interested to assert themselves as
they relate with other people. A lot of very important social skills they will learn during the preschool years will help
them throughout life as adults. These skills can even determine the individual's later social adjustment and
consequent quality relationships in adult life.

Gross and Fine Motor Development

● refers to acquiring skills that involve the large muscles.
These gross motor skills are categorized into three locomotor, non-locomotor and manipulative skills.
➢ Locomotor skills are those that involve going from one place to another, like walking, running, climbing, skipping,
hopping, creeping, galloping, and dodging.

➢ Non-locomotor ones are those where the child stays in place, like bending, stretching, turning and swaying.
➢ Manipulative skills are those that involve projecting and receiving objects, like throwing, striking, bouncing,
catching and dribbling, Preschoolers are generally physically active.

Fine motor development

● refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles in the arm, hands and fingers purposefully.

Baumrind’s Caregiving Styles

1. The permissive parent attempts to behave in a nonpunitive, acceptant and affirmative manner towards the child's
impulses, desires, and actions.

2. The authoritarian parent attempts to shape, control, and evaluate the behavior and attitudes of the child in
accordance with a set standard of conduct, usually an absolute standard, theologically motivated and formulated
by a higher authority.

3. The authoritative parent attempts to direct the child's activities but in a rational, issue- oriented manner.