MIDTERM EXAMINATION

Engineering and Technology

COLLEGE
2nd Term; Academic Year _2023-2024

Student’s Name:
Program and Year Level: BSCE-1B
Date of Examination:

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF RAILWAYS AND PAVEMENTS

Structural design
–divided into three phases, i.e. planning, design and construction.
a. Planning: involves consideration of the various requirements and factors affecting the general layout and
dimensions of the structure and results in the choice of one or perhaps several alternative types of
structure, which offer the best general solution.
b. Design: involves a detailed consideration of the alternative solutions defined in the planning phase and
results in the determination of the most suitable proportions, dimensions and details of the structural
elements and connections for constructing each alternative structural arrangement being considered.
c. Construction: involves mobilization of personnel; procurement of materials and equipment, including
their transportation to the site, and actual on-site erection.

Railway structures– encompass a wide array of construction intended to support the track itself or house railway
operations. Common examples of track carrying structures are bridges, trestles, viaducts, culverts, scales, inspection
pits, unloading pits and similar construction. When designing railway structures, the various sources of their loads
must be considered, as they would be with any other similar, non-railway structure. In addition to the dead load of the
structure itself, there are the usual live loads from the carried traffic. To these are added the dynamic components of
the traffic such as impact, centrifugal, lateral and longitudinal forces. Then there are the environmental considerations
such as wind, snow and ice, thermal, seismic and stream flow loads. Finally, because railway structures must perform
under heavier loads, have longer service lives, and dissimilar maintenance constraints compared to their highwayc
other factors, including fatigue and maintenance issues, tend to influence railway structure design more than roadway
structures.
Bridge Deck- portion of a railway bridge that supplies a means of carrying the track rails.
2 General types of Bridge Deck:
1. Open Bridge Deck- the rails are anchored directly to timber bridge ties supported directly on the floor
system of the superstructure.
2. Ballasted Bridge- the rails are anchored directly National to timber track ties supported in the ballast section.
The following types of gradients are used on the railways
a. Ruling gradient – is the steepest gradient that exists in a section.
b. Pusher or helper gradient – When the gradient of the ensuing section is so steep as to necessitate the
use of an extra engine for pushing the train, it is known as a pusher or helper gradient.
 c. Momentum gradient – is steeper than the ruling gradient and can be overcome by a train because of
the momentum it gathers while running on the section.
d. Gradients in station yards – are quite flat due to the following reasons. To prevent standing vehicles
from rolling and moving away from the yard due to the combined effect of gravity and strong winds.
To reduce the additional resistive forces required to start a locomotive to the extent possible.

A highway pavement– structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials above the natural soil sub-
grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.
The bridge deck is that portion of a
railway bridge that supplies a means of
carrying the track rails.
Requirements of a pavement
a. Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-grade soil.
b. Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it.
c. Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles.
d. Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed.
e. Produce least noise from moving vehicles.
f. Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not Impaired by reducing visibility.
g. Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected.
h. Long design life with low maintenance.
The pavement design are in accordance with the ”Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, 1993” by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials and in Reference also to “Design Guidelines, Criteria and
Standards for Public Works and Highways” by The Department of Public Works and Highway.
AASHTO Design Method– The AASHTO method for design of highway pavements is based primarily on the results
of the AASHTO road test that was conducted in Ottawa, Illinois.
Design Considerations– factors considered in the AASHTO procedure for the design of flexible pavement as
presented in the 1993 guide are:
–Pavement performance
–Traffic
–Roadbed soils (subgrade material)
–Materials of construction
–Environment
–Drainage
–Reliability
*The design parameters used in the pavement design includes time constrains, traffic, design
serviceability loss, reliability, subgrade strength and material properties for pavement structure
design.
Major design conditions:
1) Design period– assumed that the design life of pavement consummates the 20-year design period before
rehabilitation is performed.
2) Traffic– The structural design of the pavement is based on fatigue loads. Fatigue loading is taken as the cumulative
number of passes of an Equivalent Standard Axle Load (ESAL) of 8,300kgs (18kips) per axle, to which the pavement
structure will be subjected throughout its design life.

SPECIAL SOIL TESTS FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN– The results obtained from these tests are used individually in
the design of some pavements, depending on the pavement design method used.
1. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
2. Hveem Stabilometer Test.
Types of pavements:
1. Flexible pavements
–will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain transfer through
2. Rigid pavements
a. Conventional layered flexible pavement – are layered systems with high quality expensive materials are placed in
the top where stresses are high, and low-quality cheap materials are placed in lower layers
b. Full – depth asphalt pavement– constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on the soil sub-grade. This is
more suitable when there is high traffic and local materials are not available.
c. Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM)- are constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate layers in between
two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is placed above the sub-grade will significantly reduce the
vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and protect from surface water.

FAILURE, MAINTENANCE, AND REHABILITATION OF TRANSPORTATION

INFRASTRUCTURES
Transportation Infrastructures– foundational structures and systems for transporting people and goods
Highway maintenance begins just after the construction, reconstruction or rehabilitation of the roadway
facilities.
Maintenance is the preservation and keeping of each type of roadway, roadside, structures and
facilities as nearly as possible in its original condition as constructed or as subsequently improved
the operation of highway facilities and service to provide satisfactory and safe transportation(AASHTO).
Objective of Highway Maintenance
1. Highway programs and activities are measured by the amount of expenditures for construction of new
facilities and reconstruction of new existing structure with the aim of keeping up with the traffic demand.
2. Maintenance has its own role: by giving priority to local, rural and urban facilities particularly the paving
and rehabilitation after the construction has been completed.
3. Maintenance is focus on the do betterment projects. It includes grading and paving for short alignment
changes, to correct steep grades or sharp curves, re-surfacing and mulching, planting, flood and
erosion control
Categorized into:
1. Road surface maintenance
2. Shoulder and approach maintenance
 3. Bridge maintenance
4. Traffic services

ROADS
Roads Failure Causes– Rutting due to high variation in ambient temperature, uncontrolled heavy axle loads,
inadequate Stability, lost binding action, poor Design and Fabrication, congestion, environmental Hazard (Flood,
Earthquake etc.), accidents, and poor maintenance.
Types of road failures:
1. Cracking
2. Surface Deformation
3. Disintegration
4. Surface defects
Road maintenance and rehabilitation:
Physical maintenance– activities such as sealing, patching, filling joints etc.
Traffic Service activities– Including painting pavement markings, removing snow ice and litter
Rehabilitation– Includes restoring or betterment of roadway such as resurfacing.
Types of Road Maintenance
1.Surface maintenance
2.Roadside and drainage maintenance
3.Shoulder and approaches maintenance
4.Snow and ice control
5.Traffic service

RAILWAYS
Railways Failure Causes– Impact of moving loads, Effect of acceleration and deceleration, Constant reversal of
stresses, Defects in manufacture, Braking of wheels, Fatigue caused by shearing stresses, Effect of weather and
Temperature, Maintenance of rail joints, Axle load of locomotive, Design of rail joints, Frequency of rail renewal,
Corrosion, Poor Maintenance.
Type of railway failures:
1. Crushed Head
2. Transverse and Compound Fissure
3. Split Head
4. Horizontal Fissure
5. Square of Angular Breaks
6. Rail misalignment
Railway Maintenance and Rehabilitation
1.Ballast Checking
2.Lubricating Places such as curves on the side of the head of the rails
3.Tightening of joints and Fittings
4. Use of special alloy rails where wear is more
5. Renewal of Rails

BRIDGES AND TUNNELS

Bridge and Tunnels Failure Causes– High variation in ambient temperature, Uncontrolled heavy axle load, Inadequate
Stability, Effect of seawater/water especially to the bridge columns, Inadequate ground Investigation, Poor Design and
Fabrication, Congestion of Vehicles, Environmental Hazard( Flood, Earthquake, Tsunami etc.), Accidents (Car crash,
Boat Crash, Train Crash etc.), Inadequate Support method of excavation
Type of bridge and tunnel failures:
1. Steel Materials
– Corrosion of Steel
– Paint Deterioration
– Loose Connections
2. Concrete Material
–Collapse
–Spalling
–Wear/Abrasion
–Material Deterioration
–Surface Defect
–Delamination
–Water Leak at Deck
3. Expansion Joint
–Abnormal Spacing
–Difference in Level
–Rupture
–Drainage Blocked
4. Drainpipe
Bridge and Tunnels Maintenance and Rehabilitation
1. Exposed steel work must be cleaned and repainted
2. Cleaning of Deck joint
3. Damage to guard rail, must be repaired and strengthened
4. Resurfacing of deck
5. Scoured and under piers and abutments should be removed
6. Sealing, patching, filling joints and such
7. Checking of steel cables for corrosion
8. Checking of supports

PORTS–a maritime facility which may comprise one or more wharves where ships may dock to load and discharge
passengers and cargo. Although usually situated on a sea coast, some ports can be miles inland, with access to the sea
via river or canal.
SHIP CANALS– especially intended to accommodate ships used on the oceans, seas or lakes to which it is connected,
as opposed to a barge canal intended to carry barges and other vessels specifically designed for river and/or canal
navigation.
Ports and Ship Canal Failure Causes– Poor Design and Fabrication, High variation in ambient temperature, Effect of
seawater to the construction materials, Severe Corrosion, Congestion of Ships, Environmental Hazard (Flood,
Earthquake, Tsunami etc.), Accidents (Boat Crash), Poor Maintenance
Type of Ports and Ship Canal failures:
1. Material Deterioration
2. Damage of components
3. Scouring
Ports and Ship Canal Maintenance and Rehabilitation
1.Steel repair and painting
2. Implementation of coatings for corrosion protection
3. Epoxy injection into small Cracks on deck and supported beams
4. Removal of plastered concrete and cleaning of surface
5. Subject rebars replacement and re-concreting of damage section
6. Placement of anti scouring devices.

AIRPORT RUNWAYS
Airport Runways Failure Causes– Poor Design and Fabrication, High variation in ambient temperature, Poor
Maintenance, Degradation, Congestion of Aircrafts, Environmental Hazard (Flood, Earthquake, Tsunami, Bird Strikes
etc.), Accidents
Type of Airport Runways failures
1. Cracking
2. Surface Deformation
3. Disintegration
4. Surface Defects
5. Rubber Deposits

Airport Runways Maintenance and Rehabilitation

1. Maintenance of Visual Aids
2. Signs
3. Maintenance of Airport Electrical Systems
4. Maintenance of Pavements
5. Sweeping
6. Removal of snow and ice
7. Drainage
8. Maintenance of unpaved areas
 Instructor’s / Professor’sFeedback:

Instructor’s / Professor’sSignature
Conforme: _________________ IFSU-LAG-INS-
F010
Learner’s Signature1
Rev.00(Jan.03,20212)