DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

OPTION: HIGHWAY TECHNOLOGY

MODULE CODE: HWTRMR701

MODULE NAME: ROAD PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE AND

REHABILITATION

COMPETENCE: PERFORM ROAD MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Learning unit 2- Identify required maintenance

2.1. Identify properly suitable application of maintenance principles

2.2. Determine properly distress extent according to the design manual

2.3. Evaluate properly functional performance of the pavement according to the design
manual

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Learning unit 2- Identify required maintenance
2.0 Introduction
Like we have seen in the previous learning unit, road or highway maintenance is broadly refered to”
actions taken to retain all the highway/road elements in a safe and usable condition. The definition of this
“condition”will depend on the purpose of the highway, the traffic volumes, and other technical, social and
political considerations. It can have a flexible, rigid or unpaved surface.
Maintenance could be of emergency, remedial (also called routine or recurrent), and preventative (also
referred to as periodic) types.
This learning unit addresses on:
 The application of road maintenance principles for Pavement (paved as well as unpaved)
 The upgrading of existing road ( From earth road to gravel road and from gravel to earth road)
 Determination of distress extent
 Evaluation of the performance of the pavement focusing on the characteristics of pavement condition
measured to evaluate pavement performance.
Highway maintenance must be planned, managed, designed and executed. Planning and management
are done by means of maintenance management systems and procedures. These systems and procedures
are normally different depending on the pavement and do not mainly focus on long-term and strategic
repair and upgrading issues. Relevant pavement can be identified for protective and preventative actions
as part of a highway maintenance program.
On time maintenance is extremely important. Studies have proven that it is more cost-effective to
implement preventative maintenance actions on the pavement on a regular basis than neglecting the same
and later trying to rehabilitate the pavement.
2.1 Identify properly suitable application of maintenance principles
2.1.1 Introduction to road maintenance principles
In many countries, highway infrastructure is the backbone for economic development. Pavements are the
assets of any country. A good pavement is the heart of a highway or an airport. With increase in traffic
and loading, pavement deterioration occurs which needs to be monitored and captured continuously for
preparing efficient maintenance proposals. Hence there is a need to preserve these assets in good
condition, by providing maintenance derived from optimum rational strategies. Pavement evaluation is a
key step in selecting deteriorated roads for maintenance. Pavement condition rating through various

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distress identification and measurement is the need of an hour.The purpose of maintenance is to ensure
that the pavements remain serviceable throughout its design life.Maintenance prolongs their life by
reducing the rate of deterioration, thereby safeguarding investments in repair and rehabilitation, which
will lower the cost of operating vehicles by providing a smooth running surface, keeps the road open for
traffic with least delay,contributes to better transport services,sustains social and economic benefits due to
improved road.
It means that the essence of performance evaluation on the pavement service is analysis of the extent to
which the pavement performance meets the specified requirements in terms of the investigated pavement
condition data. Based on the obtained analysis and evaluation results, the pavement performance can be
estimated and the detailed maintenance strategies for the pavement can be planned.
Maintenance policies should consider the application of treatments within suitable levels of service,
subject to the effects of each treatment on the functional and structural condition of roads. Maintenance
principles or standards are maintenance strategies in which threshold values are defined for the
application of the various types of treatments considered. These standards or principles may vary
depending on agencies’ strategic policies, such as desired service level of the network, access and
mobility standards, and type of network.
2.2.2 Optimization Models in pavement management
optimization methodology is developed to identify the best set of pavement maintenance projects within a
limited budget. The primary variable of this model is the PSI. Depending on the PSI, a decision is used to
identify the appropriate treatment type.
Optimization model goes together with prioritization which is concerned with one repair strategy,
whether single-year or multi-year based. Optimization techniques, however, involve examining the effect
of various repair strategies for each road section or element. They also select one repair strategy for each
section or element which meets the objective function and satisfies the constraints.
Network optimization thus offers a higher level of decision support than ranking. In general, it uses
system analysis concepts and mathematical models to allocate resources in an optimum (efficient)
manner. Optimization can be used planning to determine optimum budget levels for each treatment
category through impact analyses.
For the optimization procedure some elements are discussed below:
 Resource constraints: Current and expected future budgets have to be specified, they are often
specified per treatment category especially if funded from different sources.
 Strategy selection: The ultimate aim of the life cycle cost analysis in pavement management is to
find a single strategy from amongst the many that have been generated for each road section. This is
done in the optimization under the resource constraints for the defined objective function.

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 Objective functions: The aim of the optimization is to minimize costs or maximize benefits. A
typical objective function is the Total Transportation Costs (TTC) and the optimization aims to
minimize the TTC. Other objective functions may be minimizing cost to the road authority, or
minimizing cost to road users, or minimizing TTC while maintaining a minimum level of service, etc.
 Optimization process: Certain objective functions have simple solutions, eg: ‘minimize ownership
costs’ requires that the lowest cost strategy for each road be found. Under resource constraints, the
optimization process becomes much more complex as strategies for one road section are competing
against strategies for another road asset for the limited funds available. For a large number of assets,
each with multiple alternative viable strategies, plus multi-year resource constraints, then the
mathematical process is immense and a true solution would require huge computing resources to
consider all the available strategies. Some software employs heuristic optimization methods
(sometimes referred to as the ‘efficiency frontier method’) to obtain a result very close to the true
optimum.
 Analysis period: The choice of the analysis period depends on many factors. The ultimate test is
whether increasing the length of the analysis period affects the outcome of the analysis. If not, then
the additional computing time and increased size of the database are not justified.
 Road maintenance optimization Methods
Various optimization methods can be used to perform the optimization. These are mathematical
programming models that are applied to the specified objective function to select alternatives that satisfy
the function, within the stated constraints. These mathematical models, in order of increasing complexity
include the following:
 Linear programming
 Non-linear programming
 Integer programming
 Dynamic programming
There are may be required the use of software includes for Incremental Benefit Cost approach analysis.
The incremental benefit-cost ratio is defined as the ratio between the increase in benefit to the increase in
cost between successive strategies to select the most appropriate or priority.
2.2.2.1 Unpaved Road maintenance standard principles or strategies based on Cost-Effectiveness
Analysis
An unpaved road refers to a road with a gravel or earth/sand surface. Maintenance treatments of unpaved
road involves the application of a specific maintenance activity to the road surface. The effectiveness of
treatments varies, depending on the level of deterioration before application, material properties, traffic,

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 and the activities in the treatment (such as prior compaction, reshaping, or forming). Most common
maintenance treatments can be grouped into the following four treatment categories:
 Drainage maintenance and improvement, including maintenance of sub-drains and drains, ditch
improvement, and culvert replacement;
 Blading or grading, which could be performed as dry blading, wet blading, light blading, or heavy
blading or grading; in addition, the effectiveness of blading can be improved in the presence of
certain defects when reshaping, reworking, and forming are considered;
 Local or spot graveling of short sections of a road, typically only on curves, steep gradients, potholes,
or isolated rock outcrops; and
 Graveling, which is the addition of a suitable wearing course layer of unbound gravel, typically 100
to 150 mm in thickness, over the entire length of the improved section.
Some maintenance treatments can be applied to upgrade a road to a higher surface standard. This is the
case when earth roads are graveled and improved to a gravel standard or when a seal is applied to an earth
or gravel road. Depending on the type of deterioration and condition of an unpaved road, treatments can
be combined and grouped into three main types:
 Routine maintenance, which is applied on a proactive programmed basis when roads present
incipient deterioration to extend good performance over time;
 Rehabilitation, which combines reactive policies to improve the condition of a road in an advanced
deterioration phase; and
 Reconstruction or emergency maintenance, which is commonly applied on unpaved roads
presenting excessive damage or wear, commonly related to severe drainage problems or abnormal
use of the road.
2.2.2.2 Upgrading of existing road from earth to gravel road
The earth road construction standard that is required for a given traffic volume appears to be a function of
the terrain morphology and type of soil. Instead of a formal application of a priori concepts, site
investigation of natural conditions and road performance should be a sound basis for design of
good-quality and cost effective rehabilitation and upgrading of earth and gravel roads. Unsurfaced roads
show a wide range of construction standards. Upgrading concerns with activities to increase capacity or
arise a road to a higher road type, for instance providing an improved surface to a gravel road.
If the road formation or pavement is considered, the following five design standards or construction
stages can be defined:
 Standard 0, track beaten by animals and carts;
 Standard 1, dust road or track opened and used by motor vehicles;
 Standard 2, earth road constructed by labor intensive methods or by scraping with a motor grader;

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 Standard 3, earth road with supply of selected soils to form a wearing course; and
 Standard 4, earth or gravel road with wearing and base courses forming a specific pavement.

 Clayey pavements will not withstand traffic loads during the rainy seasons. In order to avoid damage
to the road pavement, traffic restriction during and after rain is usually recommended but experience
has shown that rain gates are often ineffective for social or cultural reasons. Clayey pavement
sections should preferably be upgraded to Stage 3. Roads constructed to Standard 2 follow land forms
with small-radius curves and steep gradients on hills and mountains. Ground undulations and
pavement roughness usually do not allow for high speeds, and the average driving speed is normally
low in the range of 20 to 50 km/hr.
 At Standard 3, improvements to the road alignment such as embankments on swampy stretches and
in places liable to flooding are considered. The average driving speed may range from 40 to 60
km/hr.
 For Standard 4, upper gradient and lower radius limits are usually imposed and the road width
should preferably be designed for two lanes. The average driving speed may range from 50 to 70
km/hr or more.
 G.Mellier (La Route en Terre, Structure et Entrelien. Collection du BCEOM, Editions Eyrolles, Paris,
1968, 141 pp. ) suggests that earth roads be upgraded to Standards 2, 3, and 4, respectively, for the
following traffic levels: up to 25, up to 50, and up to 200 vehicles (vpd). Considering drainage and
water-crossing would result in some different construction stages, but drainage and water crossing
construction standards can also be correlated with the pavement construction standards.
 Water-crossing structures are nonexistent or exceptional for Stages 0 and 1; rivers and streams are
forded where and when possible.
 At Stage/Standard 2, crossings are usually timber structures, and later, masonry, concrete, and metal
bridges. Drainage structures are progressively constructed between Stages 2 and 4 to avoid road
closure and damage by run-off. Pavement surface drainage (longitudinal and diversion ditches,
diversion banks, and thresholds) should be contemplated as early as Stage 2, to control erosion by
run-off and avoid fast deterioration of the pavement surface. Most roads constructed or upgraded to
Standard 2, and even to Standards 3 or 4 without proper control of run-off, appear to have reverted to
lower standards after a few rainy seasons or even a single storm.
Some soils often show exceptionally good performance under traffic. If a road stretch on a lateritic
plateau is carrying traffic without distortion and with slight wear, this stretch can be maintained at Stage 2,
while other stretches will have to be upgraded to Standards 2, 3, or even 4, for comparable serviceability.

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A lateritic road on a swampy, clayey depression will have to be constructed to Standards 3 or 4 even
before it can be used by traffic. Thus, the construction standard that is required for a given traffic level
appears to be a function of the terrain morphology and the type of soil.

Site investigation of natural conditions and road performance has to be carried out before upgrading
design of low-volume earth and gravel roads.
Design methodology for upgrading of low volume earth road
A design methodology is based on comprehensive field investigation of the existing road.. And the field
information are used in earth road rehabilitation schemes by Ministry of Infrastructures.
The design methodology may be done in phases.
 The first phase being the inventory and condition survey of the road, including the inventory of
culverts and small structures, the inspection of bridges, and the inventory of soils and materials. The
tasks comprising this phase may be carried out in the field, except for the testing of borrow soil
samples. however, for large projects, a field laboratory can be contemplated.
 The second phase is the design of the maintenance and rehabilitation works required for upgrading.
This phase should also be carried out and completed in the field to allow for all necessary checking,
collection of further information, and assessment of field conditions.
 The third phase is the estimation of quantities after appropriate definition of pay items on the basis of
the rehabilitation works resulting from the second phase.
Inventory and condition survey phase
 The preliminary task of this phase is the staking out of the road. Stakes should be put along the road
every 50 m to allow for easy location during the field investigations. The detailed inventory of road
features and structures and the condition rating of the pavement and appurtenant features should be
made while walking along the road. Depending on terrain and road condition, at least 5 to 20 km of
earth road can be surveyed during a working day walk.
 The survey is made by filling a previously prepared form (Figure below ). In the first of this form, the
linear sketch shall comprise in graphic form all information about junctions, rivers, villages, as well
as numbered symbols indicating the location of drainage structures and water crossings. The former
are listed and inventoried with more detail in a separate form (Figure below ), whereas the latter are
the subject of special reports after inspection.
 The chainage is inscribed in the second line, and under this line, the form comprises five horizontal
sections: road alignment, environment, pavement (type and condition rating), ditches, and slopes.
 The first section receives all information relative to width, layout, longitudinal profile, and cross
sections collected and estimated without the help of survey instruments. For accurate estimation of

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 earth works, some particular sections, such as important embankments, and additional cuts or rock
excavations are separately surveyed by instruments.
 The second section of the form is devoted to the environment of the road. In the first-line water
surfaces, streams and rivers are positioned with mention of approximate values of level and flow
rates as well as flooding and road over topping evidence. The type and density of vegetation and
crop-yielding areas are inscribed in the second line by means of suitable abbreviations or symbols. In
the third line, the terrain is characterized by the usual rating (respectively 1 to 5 for flat rolling, hilly,
mountain, and steep mountain terrain) and by additional symbols for particular forms of landscape,
such as scarps, erosion gullies, anthills, etc.
 The line on materials occurrences comprises mention of superficial occurrences and outcrops as well
as occurrences in pits dug along the road.
 The field identification symbol is noted and, where possible, estimated or measured CBR values as
well as estimated minimal volumes in hundreds or thousands of cubic meters are given. This line may
receive additional information after laboratory testing of selected soil samples from trial pits.
 The third section of the form is devoted to pavement condition rating; it is discussed in more detail
later.
 In the two lower sections of the form, ditches and important cut and embankment slopes are
positioned and rated. Ditches may be missing obstructed by debris and vegetation or in good
condition showing different depths of erosion .
 Slope erosion may require minor repairs by hand and turfing, major repair with borrowed materials or
reconstruction. Slope instability usually requires major repair or reconstruction as well as drainage
and retaining works.

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 Figure 2.1 Inventory and condition survey form.
1. Earth pavement condition rating
The pavement condition rating is an important task of the first design phase. It requires
identification,objective rating and interpretation of pavement distresses. And deserves special discussion.
Two agents are responsible for earth road pavement deterioration: water and traffic.
 Water flowing along steep gradients and for long distances digs erosion gullies on pavement surfaces.
Longitudinal gulling along steep gradients shows sharp V-shaped cross sections and increasing depth
with increasing length. Transverse gullies along the cross-fall usually keep small dimensions and are
mainly located in curves at the vicinity of the inner edge. The outlets of longitudinal gullies across
the pavement are not considered as transverse gullies. Transverse gullies are often repeated like
corrugations.
Traffic-induced distress of earth pavements may be either functional or structural. Functional distress
results from the wearing action of vehicles. Soil elements are pulled out by vehicle tires, with loss of fines

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into the atmosphere and displacement of coarse elements. Functional earth pavement distress takes the
form of W cross sections, corrugations, and potholing. As traffic wearing develops with low densities of
vehicles
 running in the middle of generally narrow pavements, soil

Figure 2.2 Form for inventory of drainage structures.

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2.2 Determine Distress extent
As we have seen in the previous learning unit a pavement distress is a visible manifestation of
deterioration of the pavement with respect to either the serviceability or structural capacity.
A pavement distress is visualized by its extent or severity. A pavement distress extent is based on the
percentage of the pavement area affected by this particular distress within the area of the section survey in
the pavement condition survey ( The measurement of the distress extent is done by considering the area
covered by this particular distress ). The severity of the pavement distress is the seriousness or
harshness of the distress on the pavement.
The severity of the pavement distress is classified into three main levels: Low Severity, Moderate
Severity, and High severity and the extent of the pavement distress is mainly classified into Occasional,
Frequent, and extensive.
2.2.1 Extent and severity levels of various distresses in Flexible Pavements
 Distress Type: Raveling
Description:
Disintegration of the pavement from the surface downward due to the loss of aggregate particles.
Raveling may occur as a result of asphalt binder aging, poor mixture quality, segregation, or insufficient
compaction.

Severity Level:
Low - Very little coarse aggregate has worn away. Loss of fine aggregate. Coarse aggregate exposed.
Medium - Surface has an open texture and is moderately rough with considerable loss of fine
aggregate and some coarse aggregate removed.
High - Most of the surface aggregate has worn away or become dislodged. Surface is severely rough
and pitted and may be completely removed in places.
Extent Level
Occasional - Less than 20 percent of the surface area is raveling.
Frequent - Between 20 and 50 percent of the surface area is raveling.
Extensive - More than 50 percent of the surface area is raveling.
 Distress type: Bleeding
Description:
Bleeding or flushing is the presence of free asphalt binder on the pavement surface. Bleeding is caused by
an excess amount of bituminous binder in the mixture and/or low air void content.

Severity Level: Only 2 severity levels are defined:

Medium - both coarse aggregate and free bitumen are noticeable at the pavement surface.

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 High - surface appears black with very little aggregate noticeable.
Extent Level:
Occasional - less than 10 percent of the length exhibits bleeding.
Frequent - between 10 and 30 percent of the length is bleeding.
Extensive - bleeding occurs in more than 30 percent of the length.
 Distress Type: Rutting
Description:
Ruts are vertical deformations in the pavement surface along the wheel tracks. In severe cases pavement
uplift may occur along the sides of the rut, but in most instances only a depression is noticeable. Rutting
is caused by consolidation or lateral movement of any or all pavement layers, including subgrade, under
traffic.

Severity Level: Rutting severity is based upon rut depth, as approximated visually.

Low - Barely noticeable, depth between 1/8 inch and 3/8 inch.

Medium - Readily noticeable, depth more than 3/8 inch, less than 3/4 inch.

Extent Level

Occasional - Less than 20 percent of the section length is rutted.

Frequent - Between 20 and 50 percent of the section length is rutted.

Extensive - More than 50 percent of the section length is rutted.

 Distress Type: Potholes

Description:
Potholes are bowl-shaped voids or depressions in the pavement surface. Potholes are localized failure
areas which are usually caused by weak base or subgrade layers.

Severity Level: Use the following table to determine the severity levels:
Pothole Pothole
Depth of Pothole
< 1 sq. yd. (0.8m2) > 1 sq. yd. (0.8m2)
< 1" (25 mm) Low Medium
> 1" (25 mm) Medium High
Regardless of depth, potholes less than 6 inches (150 mm) in diameter shall be considered to be of low
severity.

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Extent Level
Occasional < 5 potholes/mile (per 1.6 km)
Frequent 5 - 10 potholes/mile (per 1.6 km)
Extensive > 10 potholes/mile (per 1.6 km)
 Distress Type: Edge Cracking
Description:
Edge cracks are longitudinal or crescent shaped cracks found within 1 foot (0.3 m) of the pavement edge
line. Edge cracking does not exist if the pavement is bordered by a shoulder or curb. For evaluation
purposes, edge cracking will only be evaluated within 1 ft (0.3 m) to the left and the right of the paint line
for roadway lanes larger than 10 ft (3 m). If the roadway lanes are 10 ft (3 m) wide, then edge cracking
will be evaluated from the paint line to the edge of the pavement. If wheel track cracking is present in a
10 foot (3 m) lane, and it occurs within 1 foot (0.3 m) of the paint line, then both the wheel track cracking
and the edge cracking should be rated.

Severity Level
Low - Tight cracks, width less than 1/4 inch (6 mm) with no break up or spalling.
Medium - Crack width greater than 1/4 inch (6 mm) with some spalling.
High - Multiple cracking with moderate spalling and average crack width greater than 1/4 inch
(6mm).
Extent Level

Occasional - Cracking occurs along less than 20 percent of the pavement edge within the section.
Frequent - Cracking occurs along 20 to 50 percent of the pavement edge within the section.
Extensive - Cracking occurs along more than 50 percent of the pavement edge within the section

 Distress Type: Block and Transverse Cracking

Description:
Block cracks are interconnected cracks which divide the pavement into large rectangular pieces or
blocks. Block size may range from 3 ft. by 3 ft. (1 m by 1 m) upwards to 10 ft. by 10 ft. (3 m by 3 m).
Transverse cracking is cracks at approximately right angles to the pavement centerline. The occurrence of
both block and/or transverse cracking is usually related to thermal shrinkage of the asphalt binder. Binder
age hardening is also related to formation of these crack types.

NOTE: Transverse cracks that are not classified as thermal cracks (See Thermal Cracking, page A-26)
and are not interconnected into a block pattern will be rated as Low Severity Block Cracking.

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Longitudinal Cracks that are intermittent and infrequent, and thus do not meet the criteria of Frequent or
Extensive Longitudinal Cracking, will be rated as Low Severity Block Cracking.

Severity Level

Low - Average size of block formed is greater than or equal to 6' x 6' or an occasional transverse
crack that is not a thermal crack.
Medium - Average size of block formed is greater than 3' x 3' but less than 6' x 6'.
High - Average size of block formed is less than 3' x 3'.

Extent Level

Occasional - Less than 20 percent of the section length is affected by this distress.
Frequent - Between 20 and 50 percent of this section length is affected by this distress.
Extensive - Greater than 50 percent of the section length is affected by this distress.

 Distress Type: Patching

Description:
Patching is either the placing of asphalt concrete on the surface of the existing pavement or the
replacement of the existing pavement in small isolated areas.

Deductions shall be made for all patches present in the pavement which are the result of deterioration
and/or maintenance since the last construction project.

Large patched areas [greater than 15 sq. yd. (12.5 m2)], such as spot overlays or wedge courses, shall be
rated for condition as a part of the existing pavement rather than as patches.

If more than one patch size is present, rate the severity of the size that exists in the largest quantity, and
rate the extent of the total number of patches present.

Severity Level
Low : patch size < 1 sq. ft. (0.1 m2).
Medium : patch size < 1 sq. yd. (0.8 m2)
High : patch size > 1 sq. yd. (0.8 m2)
Extent Level
Occasional : < 10 patches/mile (per 1.6 km)
Frequent : 10 - 20 patches/mile (per 1.6 km)
Extensive : > 20 patches/mile (per 1.6 km)

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 Distress Type: Debonding or Delamination
Description:
Loss of surface by debonding is the removal of the asphaltic surface layer from the underlying layer. The
problem is most common with thin asphalt surface layers [less than 2 inches (50 mm)] and is caused by
freeze-thaw action or poor bonding of the two layers during construction.
Severity Level: Use the following table to determine the severity levels
Debonded Area
Debonded Area
Depth of Debonded Area > 1 sq. yd.
< 1 sq. yd. (0.8m2)
(0.8 m2)
< 1" (25 mm) Low Medium
> 1" (25 mm) Medium High

Extent Level
Occasional : < 5 debonded areas/mile (per 1.6 km)
Frequent: 5 - 10 debonded areas/mile (per 1.6 km)
Extensive : > 10 debonded areas/mile (per 1.6 km)
2.2.2 Extent and severity levels of various distresses in Concrete Reinforced Pavements
 Distress Type: Spalling
Description:
Spalling in CRC pavements is the break up or disintegration of the concrete at transverse cracks. A spall
normally does not extend vertically through the entire concrete layer but intersects the transverse crack at
an angle. This distress may be caused by the presence of high percentage of reinforcing steel in the
pavement.
Severity Level
Low : < 1inch (25 mm), missing pieces.
Medium: Distressed area 1 to 4 inch (25 to 100 mm) wide with most of the pieces missing.
High: Distressed areas more than 4 inch (100 mm) wide with some or most of the pieces missing.
Extent Level: Extent of this distress is based upon the percentage of transverse cracks which have
spalled.
Occasional: Less than 20 percent of the cracks.
Frequent : Between 20 and 50 percent of the cracks.
Extensive: More than 50 percent of the cracks.

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 Distress Type: Longitudinal Cracking
Description:
A crack or break approximately parallel to the pavement centerline. This type of cracking is usually
associated with subgrade settlement or insufficient bearing support.
Severity Level
Low - Hairline or tight cracks with little crack spalling.
Medium - Crack opened or spall at the surface to a width of 1/4 inch to 1 inch (6 to 25 mm) over a
distance equal to at least one- half the crack length.
High - Crack opened or spalled at the surface to a width greater than 1 inch (25 mm) over a distance
equal to at least one- half the crack length.
Extent Level
Occasional - Longitudinal cracking occurs along less than 5 percent of the section length.
Frequent - Longitudinal cracking occurs along from 5 to 15 percent of the section length.
Extensive - Longitudinal cracking occurs along more than 15 percent of the section length.
 Distress Type: Punchouts or Edge Breaks
Description:
A punchout or edge break is a cracked rectangular area usually along the outside pavement edge. A
punchout requires formation of longitudinal crack (usually within the outer wheel track) which connects
transverse cracks of the CRC pavement. The rectangular punchout area thus is defined by 2 transverse
cracks, the longitudinal crack and the outside pavement edge. A punchout results from concrete that is
over stressed because of short transverse crack spacing or poor support of the CRC pavement. Punchout
areas which have been repaired should be evaluated for patching distress.
Severity Level: This distress is rated only for Medium and High levels.
Medium - Crack width greater than 1/4 inch (6 mm) with some spalling. Punchout area may be
depressed up to ½ inch (13 mm).
High - Punchout area is depressed more than ½ inch (13 mm) and/or is breaking up or shattering.
Extent Level:
Occasional: Fewer than 2 punchouts/mile (per 1.6 km) of section length.
Frequent: Between 2 and 5 punchouts/mile (per 1.6 km) of section length.
Extensive: More than 5 punchouts/mile (per 1.6 km) of section length.

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 Distress Type: Transverse Crack Spacing
Description:
A crack at approximately right angles to the pavement centerline. Transverse cracking in CRC pavements
is normal. The cracking is detrimental if the spacing is less than or greater than that associated with good
CRC performance. Optimum CRC transverse crack spacing is about 5 to 8 feet (1.5 m 2.4 m).
Severity Level
Low: Average crack spacing greater than 3 feet (1 m).
Medium: Average crack spacing less than 3 feet (1 m), with few intersecting cracks. Intersecting
cracks are transverse cracks which do not cross the entire pavement width but intersect other
transverse cracks.
High: Average crack spacing less than 3 feet (1 m), with many intersecting cracks.
Extent Level: Extent is based upon the percentage of the section length having an undesirable transverse
crack pattern.
Occasional: Less than 20 percent.
Frequent: Between 20 and 50 percent.
Extensive: Greater than 50 percent.
 Distress Type: Patching
Description:
Patching is either the placing of additional material on the surface of the existing pavement or the
replacement of existing pavement in isolated areas. Deductions shall be made for all patches present in
the pavement which are made with asphalt concrete material and are the result of deterioration and/or
maintenance since the last construction project. No deductions shall be made for existing patches which
consist of sound concrete. Where deterioration exists with a concrete repair, the deterioration shall be
rated as part of the pavement. Multiple patches found along a transverse joint or crack which do not
interconnect shall be added together to represent the size of one patch. Multiple patches found along a
longitudinal joint or crack which do not interconnect, but are within the same slab, shall be added together
to represent the size of one patch.
Severity Level
Low: Patch size <1 sq. ft. (0.1 m2), and patches are not deteriorated.
Medium: Patch size <1 sq. ft. (0.1 m2)., with deterioration present.
High: Patch size >1 sq. ft.( 0.1 m2), regardless of deterioration.
Extent Level
Occasional: <10 patches/mile (per 1.6 km).
Frequent: 10 to 20 patches/mile (per 1.6 km).

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 Extensive - >20 patches/mile (per 1.6 km)
2.2.3 Evaluate the performance of the pavement
Like we have discussed in the previous learning unit the performance of a road pavement is defined as its
ability to serve the traffic for a certain period of time. The primary factors considered under pavement
performance are the structural and functional performance of the pavement. Structural performance is
related to the physical condition of the pavement with respect to factors that have a negative impact on
the capability of the pavement to carry the traffic load. These factors include cracking, faulting, raveling,
and so forth. Functional performance is an indication of how effectively the pavement serves the user.
The main factor considered under functional performance is riding comfort.
 The evaluation pavement performance is one of the most important steps of the pavement
management system. It consists of identifying pavement condition according to various distresses
occurring in the pavement surface.
 The evaluation of the pavement performance is a fundamental parameter for the determination of the
timing and type of intervention (maintenance, rehabilitation or reconstruction) and the overall
pavement management practice.
 Usually, two types of pavement performance evaluation are conducted: the functional and the
structural evaluation.
Functional evaluation considers the surface characteristics of a pavement and is user related. Surface
characteristics include longitudinal evenness (smoothness), skid resistance, rutting, cracking or any other
surface distress that affects riding quality and safety. Functional evaluation is used to decide whether the
pavement needs to be maintained, rehabilitated or reconstructed; essentially, the necessity for intervention
and its type is decided.
Structural evaluation considers layer thickness, materials and strength and is load related. Structural
evaluation is used to determine the ability of the pavement structure to carry traffic loading; essentially,
the remaining life of the pavement is determined, and from that, it is decided whether rehabilitation or
strengthening of the pavement structure is required for the anticipated future traffic loading. Functional
evaluation and structural evaluation are complimentary to each other and quite often are best to be
executed together, particularly when more precise determination of pavement rehabilitation strategy is
required. The functional evaluation of pavements is carried out by visual condition surveys or purposely
built mobile devices.
The structural evaluation of the pavement is carried out by non-destructive testing using deflection
measuring devices, supported by detailed information data of the pavement structure. Limited number of
coring is necessary to verify primarily pavement layer thickness, even if a ground penetration radar (GPR)
device in most cases is used.

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Functional evaluation by visual condition survey
The visual condition survey, also known as distress survey, is the first step to functional evaluation of the
pavement and perhaps the most useful of all types of surveys. In some cases, it is a stand-alone procedure
for decision making.
The visual condition survey of pavements consists of:
(a) recording of pavement distresses,
(b) pavement rating and
(c) detailed presentation of pavement condition.;
The visual recording of pavement distresses is usually conducted by crews of at least two trained people.
The collection of pavement distress information may be carried out by viewing the pavement surface
from a slow-moving vehicle or by walking on the pavement surface. The first may require stop and start
for taking representative photographs or for better identification of the distress. When a survey is carried
out, walking closer along the pavement lane is necessary and measurements are taken related to the extent
of the distress (area or linear length) for assessing more accurately the distress level. Visual condition
surveys require the use of GPS facility and the use of survey forms and distress identification manual.
Portable data recording devices (data capture devices [DCDs]) may also be used during surveying,
enabling faster data processing by the use of specially developed software. The information on DCDs
may also be downloaded to pavement management software.
Pavement rating may be descriptive or quantitative. In case of descriptive rating of the pavement
condition, the terms good, fair and bad are usually used. The meaning of the above terms could be as
follows:
Good: pavement section requires no intervention
Fair: pavement section requires some kind of maintenance or rehabilitation of the surface layer
Bad: pavement section has structurally failed and requires rehabilitation of all bituminous layers or
even reconstruction of the pavement structure.
 Intermediate ratings may also be used, such as ‘fair to good’ or ‘fair to bad’. These terms provide the
immediacy aspect of the intervention, namely, if the intervention is to be performed after a certain
period or immediately. In the case of quantitative rating of the pavement condition, the relevant
condition index or distress level is determined. The most well-known pavement condition index (PCI)
after visual survey is the one described in ASTM D 6433 (2011). PCI values range from 0 to 100.
 To quantify pavement functional performance, a concept known as the serviceability performance
was also developed. Under this concept, a procedure was developed to determine the present
serviceability index (PSI) of the pavement, based on its roughness and distress, which were measured
in terms of extent of cracking, patching, and rut depth for flexible pavements.

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Functional evaluation by devices measuring surface characteristics
The most objective assessment of functional pavement condition evaluation is conducted using purposely
built devices that record the pavement’s surface characteristics, in particular evenness, skid resistance and
texture depth. These devices are self-mobile, mobile or portable when a short length of road pavement has
to be surveyed.
The additional advantages when using self-mobile or mobile devices are as follows:
 much faster data collection,
 less traffic interruption and quicker data processing.
 Needless to say, the cost of mobile devices is considerably higher than that of the portable devices.
Before referring to and describing the devices used for functional evaluation of the pavement, general
issues regarding pavement surface characteristics will be discussed in the following paragraph.
Pavement surface characteristics
The pavement surface characteristics that are closely related to the pavement functionality are the ones
related to its geometric profile on the vertical level. Skid resistance.
 Skid Resistance
Safety characteristics of a pavement are another measure of its condition, and highway agencies
continually monitor this aspect to ensure that roadway sections are operating at the highest possible level
of safety. The principal measure of pavement safety is its skid resistance. Other elements contributing to
the extent in which pavements perform safely are rutting (which causes water to collect that creates
hydroplaning) and adequacy of visibility of pavement markings.
 Skid resistance data are collected to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of a pavement in
preventing or reducing skid-related accidents. Skid data are used by highway agencies to identify
pavement sections with low skid resistance, to develop priorities for rehabilitation, and to evaluate
the effectiveness of various pavement mixtures and surface types.
 The coefficient of sliding friction between a tire and pavement depends on factors such as weather
conditions, pavement texture, tire condition, and speed. Since skidding characteristics are not solely
dependent on the pavement condition, it is necessary to standardize testing procedures and in this
way eliminate all factors but the pavement. The basic formula for friction factor f is

where
L: lateral or frictional force required to cause two surfaces to move tangentially to each other
N: force perpendicular to the two surfaces

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When skid tests are performed, they must conform to specified standards set by the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM). The test results produce a skid number (SK)* where

The SK is usually obtained by measuring the forces obtained with a towed trailer riding on a wet
pavement, equipped with standardized tires in order to obtain the skid resistance
Structural evaluation of pavements
The structural evaluation of pavements is conducted primarily by suitably designed devices and is a
non-destructive procedure. However, destructive tests are often necessary to be carried out to confirm the
results of the non-destructive structural evaluation of the pavement. On a project level, destructive testing
alone may be sufficient for pavement structural evaluation.
 The destructive tests comprise core extraction and trench opening. Core extraction is necessary for
the determination of :
(a) The thickness of the asphalt layers,
(b) The degree of compaction
(c) The composition of the asphalt,
(d) The mechanical properties of the asphalt and
(e) The extension/initiation of cracking within the asphalt layers.
Trench opening down to the formation level is necessary for the determination of
(a) The strength of the subgrade,
(b) The strength and stiffness of all layers beneath the asphalt layers,
(c) The thickness and degree of compaction of the layers,
(d) Moisture content,
(e) Particle gradation,
(f) Plasticity and other properties of the constituent materials of the unbound layers,
(g) Crack propagation and
(h) Layer deformation.
Pavement Structural Condition
The structural adequacy of a pavement is measured either by non destructive means which measure
deflection under static or dynamic loadings, or by destructive tests, which involve removing sections of
the pavement and testing these in the laboratory.
Structural condition evaluations are rarely used by some companies for monitoring network pavement
condition due to the expense involved. However, nondestructive evaluations, which gather deflection data,

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are used by some companies on a project basis for pavement design purposes and to develop
rehabilitation strategies.
 Non destructive structural evaluation is based on the premise that measurements can be made on the
surface of the pavement and in situ characteristics can be inferred from these measurements about the
structural adequacy of the pavement.
The four basic non destructive test methods are
(1) Measurements of static deflection
(2) Measurements of deflections due to dynamic or repeated loads,
(3) Measurements of deflections from a falling load (impulse load), and
(4) Measurements of density of pavement layers by nuclear radiation, used primarily to evaluate
individual pavement layers during construction. Deflection data are primarily used for design purposes
and not for pavement management. Some states use deflection equipment solely for research and special
studies.
 One method for measuring static deflections is the Benkelman Beam, which is a simple
hand-operated device designed to measure deflection responses of a flexible pavement to a standard
wheel load. A probe point is placed between two dual tires and the motion of the beam is observed on
a dial which records the maximum deflection. Other static devices that are used include the traveling
deflectometer, the plate-bearing test, and the lacroix deflectograph. Most of these devices are based
on the Benkelman Beam principle in which pavement deflections due to a static or slowly moving
load are measured manually or by automatic recording devices.
 Another method for measuring pavement deflections is the Dynaflect. This device consists of a
dynamic cyclical force generator mounted on a two-wheel trailer, a control unit, a sensor assembly,
and a sensor calibration unit. The system provides rapid and precise measurements of roadway
deflections, which in this test are caused by forces generated by unbalanced flywheels rotating in
opposite directions. A vertical force of 1000 lb is produced at the loading wheels, and deflections are
measured at five points on the pavement surface located 1 ft apart. Most countriies use falling
load-type equipment, referred to as “falling weight deflectometers” (FWD), because force impulses
created by a falling load more closely

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 Figure 2.3 Dynaflect

Figure 2.4 FWD, heavy weight deflectometer. (Courtesy of Dynatest International A/S.)

All FWDs are based on the same principle; they apply an impulse load using a falling system and all
comply with ASTM D 4695 (2008) and ASTM D 4694 (2009) standard guidelines

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An FWD has the ability to provide information for the structural condition of all pavement layers,
including the subgrade. In particular, with FWD deflection measurements, the following may be obtained:
(a) estimation of modulus of elasticity or stiffness modulus of each layer,
(b) estimation of remaining life of pavement,
(c) detection of weak points in the pavement,
(d) estimation of the severity of potential cracks in stabilised layers,
(e) determination of the effectiveness of the load transfer at the joints of rigid pavements and
(f) detection of cracks on rigid pavements.

 The determination of the overlay thickness is usually performed by analytical methods similar to
those applied in the analytical pavement design methodologies. However, by converting deflection
measurements obtained by FWD to Benkelman beam, or to deflectograph deflection may also be
used in designing overlay thickness

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