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Probability and Statistics Course 1
Definition 一个集合的所组成的东西叫做元素
A set is a collection of objects, which are called elements.
Example 1
A set 𝑆 contains three elements, namely, apple, orange, & kiwi.
Probability and Statistics Course
Example 2
The set of possible outcomes of a die roll is
Example 3
The set of possible outcomes of a coin toss is
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𝑆 denotes the size of a set, the number of elements it contains.
𝑆 is the set of all outcomes of a die roll. What is 𝑆 ?
𝑆 is the set of all outcomes of a coin toss. What is 𝑆 ?
𝑆 is the set of all cards from a deck. What is 𝑆 ?
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The notation 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 asserts that object 𝑥 is contained in set 𝑆.
We say 𝑥 is an element of 𝑆.
The notation 𝑥 ∉ 𝑆 asserts that object 𝑥 is not contained in
set 𝑆. We say 𝑥 is not an element of set 𝑆.
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s等于t代表s背后的集合等于t的集合
The notation 𝑆 = 𝑇 means that set 𝑆 is equal to 𝑇 .
Two sets are equal if every element of 𝑆 is a member of 𝑇
and every element of 𝑇 is a member of S. Otherwise, 𝑆 ≠∉ 𝑇.
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The assertion 𝑇 ⊆ 𝑆 means 𝑇 is a subset of 𝑆. 𝑇 is a subset of
𝑆 if all the elements in 𝑇 are also in 𝑆.
is called the empty set and is sometimes denoted by
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Let 𝐹(𝑥) be a logical formula that takes objects 𝑥 and returns
a value in the set 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒, 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 . We indicate the set of
objects such that 𝐹(𝑥) is true using the notation 𝑥|𝐹(𝑥) .
Example
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Definition
The universal set 𝛀 is the set of all possible objects of
interest in a given context.
Example
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Definition
The power set of a set 𝑆 is denoted 2𝑆 or 𝑃(𝑆). It is the set of
all subsets of 𝑆.
Example
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Definition
The notation 𝑆 𝑐 indicates the complement of set 𝑆 with
respect to the universal set Ω. 𝑆 𝑐 contains all elements of Ω
that are not in 𝑆:
Example
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Definition
The notation 𝑆⋃𝑇 indicates a set containing the union of the
elements in set 𝑆 and the elements in set 𝑇 :
Example
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Definition
The notation 𝑆 ∩ 𝑇 indicates a set containing the
intersection of the elements contained in 𝑆 and the elements
contained in set 𝑇 :
Example
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Definition
Sets 𝑆1 , ⋯ , 𝑆𝑁 are mutually disjoint if for every 𝑖, 𝑗 with 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗:
Example
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Definition
Sets 𝑆1 , ⋯ , 𝑆𝑁 are a partition of set 𝑆 if 𝑆1 , ⋯ , 𝑆𝑁 are
mutually disjoint and 𝑆1 ∪ ⋯ ∪ 𝑆𝑁 = 𝑆.
Example
15
We can easily represent set operations using Venn diagram
For example,
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Using the above definitions, we can show that:
Algebra of Sets
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Let A, B and C be three events. Find expressions for:
(a) At least one of the events A, B , C occurs
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Let A, B and C be three events. Find expressions for:
(b) At most one of the events A, B , C occurs
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Let A, B and C be three events. Find expressions for:
(c) None of the events A, B , C occurs
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Let A, B and C be three events. Find expressions for:
(d) All three events A, B , C occur
(e) Exactly one of the events A, B , C occurs
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Let A, B and C be three events. Find expressions for:
(a) Events A and B occur, but not C
(b) Either event A occurs or, if not, then B also does not occur.
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Let A, B and C be three events. Find expressions for:
(c) At least two of the three events occur.
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Let A, B and C be three events. Find expressions for:
(d) Exactly two of the three events occur.
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Key Notation
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Problem #1
Can you compute 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) in terms of 𝑃(𝐴) and 𝑃(𝐵)? If so, explain.
If not, find the largest and smallest possible values 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) can take
in terms of 𝑃(𝐴) and 𝑃 𝐵 .
Give examples in which these values can be attained (i.e., give upper
and lower bounds for 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵).).
Repeat previous part with 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) instead of 𝑃 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 .
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Problem #2
The following data were given in a study of a group of 150 women:
In reference to job, education, and marital status, there were 100
professionals, 120 married persons, 70 college graduates, 60
professional college graduates, 45 married college graduates, 35
married professionals, and 20 married professional college graduates.
Show that the numbers reported in the study must be incorrect.
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