BY MASOMO

MSINGI
PUBLISHERS

ICT NOTES

KNEC NOTES
 Computer Hardware
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS.
Definition of a Computer:
❖ A Computer is an electronic device that operates (works) under the control of programs
stored in its own memory unit.
❖ A computer is an electronic machine that processes raw data to give information as output.
❖ An electronic device that accepts data as input, and transforms it under the influence of a set
of special instructions called Programs, to produce the desired output (referred to as
Information).
A computer automatically accepts data & instructions as input from an Input device, stores them
temporarily in its memory, then processes that data according to the instructions given, and
finally transfers the processed data (Information) to an Output device.
Explanations;
 A computer is described as an electronic device because; it is made up of electronic
components and uses electric energy (such as electricity) to operate.
 A computer has an internal memory, which stores data & instructions temporarily awaiting
processing, and even holds the intermediate result (information) before it is communicated to
the recipients through the Output devices.
 It works on the data using the instructions issued, means that, the computer cannot do any
useful job on its own. It can only work as per the set of instructions issued.
A computer will accept data in one form and produce it in another form. The data is normally
held within the computer as it is being processed.

Program:
❖ A computer Program is a set of related instructions written in the language of the computer
& is used to make the computer perform a specific task (or, to direct the computer on what to
do).
❖ A set of related instructions which specify how the data is to be processed.
❖ A set of instructions used to guide a computer through a process.

Data:
Data is a collection of raw facts, figures or instructions that do not have much meaning to the
user.
- Data may be in form of numbers, alphabets/letters or symbols, and can be processed to
produce information.

TYPES OF DATA.
There are two types/forms of data:
a). Digital (discrete) data:
Digital data is discrete in nature. It must be represented in form of numbers, alphabets or
symbols for it to be processed by a computer.
- Digital data is obtained by counting. E.g. 1, 2, 3 …
b). Analogue (continuous) data:
Analogue data is continuous in nature. It must be represented in physical nature in order to
be processed by the computer.
- Analogue data is obtained by measurement. E.g. Pressure, Temperature, Humidity,
Lengths or currents, etc
- The output is in form of smooth graphs from which the data can be read.
-1-
 Computer Hardware
Data Processing:
❖ It is the process of collecting all items of data together & converting them into information.
❖ Processing refers to the way the data is manipulated (or handled) to turn it into information.
The processing may involve calculation, comparison or any other logic to produce the required
result. The processing of the data usually results in some meaningful information being
produced.

Information:
Information is the data which has been refined, summarized & manipulated in the way you want
it, or into a more meaningful form for decision-making.
- The information must be accurate, timely, complete and relevant.
Comparison between Data and Information.
Data Information
1. Unprocessed (raw) facts or figures. 1. It is the end-product of data processing
(processed data)
2. Not arranged. 2. Arranged into a meaningful format.
3. Does not have much meaning to the user. 3. More meaningful to the user.
4. Cannot be used for decision-making. 4. Can be used to make decisions.

Characteristics / Features of a Computer.

Before 20th century, most information was processed manually or by use of simple machines.
Today, millions of people are using computers in offices and at home to produce and store all
types of information
The following are some of the attributes that make computers widely accepted & used in the day-
to-day activities in our society:

1. Speed.
Computers operate at very high speeds, and can perform very many functions within a very
short time.

2. Accuracy:
Unlike human beings, computers are very accurate, i.e., they never make mistakes.
A computer can work for very long periods without going wrong. However, when an error
occurs the computer has a number of in-built, self-checking features in their electronic
components that can detect & correct such errors.
Usually errors are committed by the users entering the data to the computer, thus the saying
Garbage in Garbage Out (GIGO).
This means that, if you enter incorrect data into the computer and have it processed, the
computer will give you misleading information.

3. Reliability.
The computer can be relied upon to produce the correct answer if it is given the correct
instructions & supplied with the correct data.
Therefore, if you want to add two numbers, but by mistake, give the computer a “Multiply”
instruction, the computer will not know that you intended to “ADD”; it will multiply the
numbers supplied.

-2-
 Computer Hardware
4. Consistency:
Computers are usually consistent. This means that, given the same data & the same
instructions, they will produce the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.

5. Storage:
- A computer is capable of storing large amounts of data or instructions in a very small
space.
- A computer can store data & instructions for later use, and it can produce/ retrieve this data
when required so that the user can make use of it.
- Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals through the use
of passwords.

6. Diligence:
Unlike human beings, a computer can work continuously without getting tired or bored.
Even if it has to do a million calculations, it will do the last one with the same speed and
accuracy as the first one.

7. Automation:
A computer is an automatic device. This is because, once given the instructions, it is guided
by these instructions and can carry on its job automatically until it is complete.
It can also perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
8. Versatile:
A computer can be used in different places to perform a large number of different jobs
depending on the instructions fed to it.

9. Imposition of a formal approach to working methods:

Because a computer can only work with a strict set of instructions, it identifies and imposes
rigid rules for dealing with the data it is given to process.

Review Questions.
1. What is a Computer?
2. Why is a computer referred to as an electronic device?
3. Define the following terms as used in computer science.
a). Data.
b). Programs.
c). Data processing.
d). Information.
4. (a) Briefly explain the two forms of data.
(b) Give THREE differences between Data and Information.
5. The speed of a computer is measured in ___________.
6. What does the term GIGO stands for?
7. List and explain 4 salient features/ properties of a computer.
8. List FIVE advantages of a computerized system over a manual system.

-3-
 Computer Hardware

PARTS OF A COMPUTER.
A computer is made up of a collection of different components that are interconnected together
in order to work as a single entity.
A Computer consists of the following parts/devices: -
1. The System Unit.
2. Input devices.
3. Output devices.
4. Storage devices.

System Unit.
This is the casing (unit) that houses electronic components such as the ‘brain’ of the computer
called the Central processing Unit (CPU) and storage devices.
The components in the System unit include: -
▪ Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is also referred to as Processor.
▪ Motherboard.
▪ Power supply unit.
▪ Memory storage devices.
▪ Disk drives, which are used to store, record and read data.
Types of System units
There are two makes of System units:
a) Tower style system unit
This system unit is made to stand alone. They are designed to be placed on the floor.
- Tower style units have more space for expansion than the typical desktop units.
b) Desktop system units
Desktop units lie on the desk with the monitor resting on top of the system unit.

Features of the System unit.

- It houses the CPU.
- It connects to all peripheral devices using ports.
- It has the computer’s Power switch.
-4-
 Computer Hardware
The Central processing unit (CPU)
This is the brain of the computer, and carries out all the processing within the computer.

Input devices.
These are the devices used to enter/put data into the computer.
• They accept data for processing & convert it into a suitable form that the computer can
understand.
Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Joysticks, Light pen, Scanner, etc.
The Keyboard
The keyboard looks like a typewriter, and has letters, numbers and other keys through which data
is entered into the computer.
To enter data & instructions into the computer, the user should press the required keys.
The Mouse
It is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer by controlling a
special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.

Output devices.
Output devices are used to give the end results of data that was entered into the computer.
- They extract/ disseminate processed data (information) from the computer.
- They accept data from processing devices & convert it into human sensible form.
Examples: Screens (Monitors), Printers, Graph plotters, Speakers, etc
The Monitor
It is a television like screen used for displaying output. When you type a letter or number on the
keyboard, it shows up on the monitor.
Note. The monitor enables the user to monitor/track or see what is going on in the computer.
Printer
Printers are used to create permanent copies of output on paper.

Computer peripherals.
A computer is basically made up of a system unit and other devices connected to the system unit
called Peripheral devices.
Peripheral devices are the elements (components) connected to the system unit so as to assist the
computer satisfy its users.
Peripheral devices are connected to the System unit using special cables called data interface
cables that carry data, programs & information to and from the processor. The cables are
connected to the system unit using connectors called Ports.
Examples of peripheral devices include;
- Monitor, - Keyboard,
- Mouse
- Printer. - Modem.
- Speakers.
- Plotter.

-5-
 Computer Hardware
Review Questions.
1. List down the components that make up a computer.
2. Clearly draw and label the main physical parts of a simple computer system.
3. What are computer peripherals?
4. (a). Name and explain the two main divisions of computer storage.
(b). Give two common examples of secondary storage devices.
5. Name two output devices.
6. (a). Explain the term System unit.
(b). Name some of the components found in the System unit.
(c). Give three features of a computer’s System Unit.
7. Why is the screen also called a Monitor?
8. What is a Mouse in relation to computing?

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS.
HISTORY OF COMPUTING.
Before 1900, most data processing was done manually using simple tools like stones & sticks to
count and keep records.
Around 2000 years ago, Asian merchants came up with a special calculating tool called Abacus
that could be used to calculate large figures.
An Abacus is made up of a rectangular frame and a crossbar at the middle. It is fitted with wires
or strings running across from the frame to the crossbar.

How to represent a number using an Abacus.

Each bead in the lower row has a value of 1, while each bead in the upper row has a value of 5.
To represent a number, the bead is moved to the crossbar. Those beads away from the crossbar
represent zeros.
The Figure below represents the number 6908 (Six thousand nine hundred and eight).

After Abacus, the first machine that is usually regarded as the forerunner of modern computers
was named the Analytical Engine, and was developed by an English mathematician called
Charles Babbage.
In 1939, Professor Howard Aken of Horrard University designed the first computer-like machine
named Mark 1. Since then, a series of advancements in electronics has occurred. With each
breakthrough, the computers based on the older form of electronics have been replaced by a new
“generation” of computers based on the newer form of electronics.

-6-
 Computer Hardware
COMPUTER GENERATIONS.
A Computer generation is a grouped summary of the gradual developments in the computer
technology. The historical events are not considered in terms of individual years, but are
classified in durations (a period of more than a year).

1ST Generation computers (1946 – 1956).

The 1st generation of computers used thousands of electronic gadgets called Vacuum tubes or
Thermionic valves to store & process information.

Vacuum tube
The tubes consumed a lot power, and generated a lot of heat during processing due to
overheating.
The computers constantly broke down due to the excessive heat generated, hence were short-
lived, and were not very reliable.
They also used Magnetic drum memories.
Cards were used to enter data into the computers.
Their internal memory capacity was limited. The maximum memory size was approx. 2 KB
(2,000 bytes).
The computers used big physical devices in their circuitry; hence they were very large in size, i.e.
the computer could occupy several office blocks. For example, ENIAC occupied an area of
about 150m2 - the size of an average 3-bedroom house.
They were very slow - their speed was measured in Milliseconds. E.g., ENIAC (the earliest
electronic computer) could perform 5,000 additions per second & 300 multiplications per second.
The computers were very costly - they costed millions of dollars.
Examples of 1ST Generation computers:
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) built in 1946 for use in World War
II. It contained 18,000 Vacuum tubes.
 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) developed in 1945 by Dr. John
Von Neumann. It was the first computer that used instructions stored in memory.
 UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).
 IBM 650.
 LEO (Lyon’s Electronic Office).

2ND Generation computers (1957 – 1963).

The 2nd generation computers used tiny, solid-state electronic devices called Transistors. The
transistors were relatively smaller, more stable & reliable than vacuum tubes.

Transistor
The computers consumed less power, produced less heat, were much faster, and more reliable
than those made with vacuum tubes.
They used Magnetic core memories.
-7-
 Computer Hardware
RAM Memory size expanded to 32 KB.
Their operation speed increased to between 200,000 – 300,000 instructions per second. Their
speeds were measured in Microseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 1 million additions per
second, which was comparatively higher than that of the 1st generation computers.
The computers were smaller in size & therefore, occupied less space compared to the 1st G
computers.
They were less costly than the 1st G computers.
Examples of 2nd Generation computers:
 NCR 501, IBM 300, IBM 1401, IBM 7070, IBM 7094 Series & CDC-6600 Mainframe
computers.
 ATLAS LEO Mark III.
 UNIVAC 1107.
 HONEYWELL 200.

3RD Generation computers (1964 – 1979).

Used electronic devices called Integrated Circuits (ICs), which were made by combining
thousands of transistors & diodes together on a semiconductor called a Silicon chip.

Integrated circuit
The processing speed increased to 5 Million instructions per second (5 MIPS).
The storage capacity of the computers (i.e., the RAM memory sizes) expanded to 2 MB.
They were smaller in size compared to 2nd generation computers.
The computers used a wide range of peripheral devices.
The computers could support more than user at the same time. They were also able to support
remote communication facilities.
Magnetic disks were developed for storage purposes.
The 1st microcomputer was produced during this period (1974).
Examples of 3rd Generation computers:
 IBM 360, 370;
 ICL 1900 Series;
 8-bit Microcomputers & PDP-11 Mainframe computers.

4TH Generation computers (1979 – 1989).

The 4th generation computers used Large Scale Integrated (LSI) circuits & Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. These circuits were made by compressing more tiny circuits and
transistors into even smaller space of the silicon chip.

Very Large integrated circuit

-8-
 Computer Hardware
The computers were small, and very fast. Their processing speeds increased to 50 Million
instructions per second.
Had large storage capacity, i.e., their memory sizes expanded to several hundred Megabytes.
Memories used included Magnetic disks, Bubble memories & Optical disks.
Examples of 4th Generation computers:
 IBM 308 and 4300;
 Amdahl 580
 Honeywell DPS-88
 Burroughs 7700, and the 16-bit & 32-bit microcomputers. The first microcomputer was
called Apple II.

5TH Generation computers (1990 – Present).

In this generation fall today’s computers.
The technologies used are Parallel architectures, 3-Dimensional circuit design & super
conducting materials.
These technologies have led to the development of computers referred to as Supercomputers,
which are very powerful, and have very high processing speeds. Their speeds are measured in
Nanoseconds & Picoseconds.
They are able to perform parallel (or multi-processing) whereby a single task is split among a
number of processors.
The memory sizes range between 1 Gigabyte & 1 Terabyte.
The computers are designed using VLSI and the Microchip technology that has given rise to the
smaller computers, known as Microcomputers used today.
The computers have special instruction sets that allow them to support complex programs that
mimic human intelligence often referred to as Artificial Intelligence. Such programs can help
managers to make decisions and also provide critical expert services to users instead of relying
on human professionals.

Review Questions.
1. Briefly describe the history of computers.
2. (a). What do you mean by computer generations?
(b). Describe the FIVE generations of computers in terms of technology used and give an
example of a computer developed in each generation.
(c). Compare computer memory sizes during the Five computer generation periods.
3. What was the most remarkable discovery during the second computer generation?
4. (a). Technology is the basis of computer classification. Based on this, explain briefly the
difference between the first three computer generations.
(b). What is so peculiar in the fourth and fifth generation of computers?
5. Match the following generations of computers with the technology used to develop them.

Generation Technology
First generation A). Very Large Integrated Circuit
Second generation B). Thermionic valves (Vacuum tubes)
Third generation C). Transistors
Fourth generation D). Integrated Circuits

6. Give four characteristics of First generation computer.

7. Write the following abbreviations in full:
(a). ENIAC
(b). VLSI
(c). IC
-9-
 Computer Hardware
8. What is Artificial Intelligence?

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE TYPE OF COMPUTER.

1) Type of processor (Central processing unit – CPU)
Microcomputers use microprocessors, which are manufactured on a single chip, as their CPU.
In larger computers such as supercomputers, mainframe & minicomputers, the processing is carried
out by a number of separate, high-speed components instead of a single processor.
2) Processing speed.
Every computer has a clock that drives its operations.
Larger computers have faster clocks and therefore can process many instructions per second
compared to small computers, which have slower clocks.
3) Amount of Main memory (RAM).
All computers have some amount of RAM (Random Access memory), which is used to hold the
instructions required to perform a task.
Larger computers have more RAM and therefore can handle large volumes of data & also support
many and sophisticated programs which might require large memory sizes.
4) Storage capacity of the Hard disk.
The storage capacity is the amount of space that is available for storing the instructions required to
manipulate data.
Larger computers have higher storage capacities than microcomputers.
5) Cost of the computer.
The cost of computers is directly related to the size. Microcomputers are less costly compared to
minicomputers, mainframes or Supercomputers.
6) Speed of Output devices.
The speed of an output device is determined by the amount of information that can be printed in a
specified amount of time.
The speed of microcomputer output device is less than that of the larger computers in that:
For a microcomputer, the speed of its output device is measured by the number of characters
printed per second (cps). For larger computers, their output devices are faster and their speeds
are measured depending on the number of lines or pages printed per minute (lpm / ppm).
7) Number of users who can access the computer at the same time.
Most microcomputers can support only 1, 2 or 3 users at the same time. However, they can be
networked to share resources.
Larger computers can support hundreds of users at the same time.
Review Questions.
1. Briefly explain five factors that can be used to determine the type of a computer.

40
 Computer Hardware

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified according to the following factors:
1. Physical size & processing power.
2. Purpose for which they are designed.
3. Functionality (Method/ mode of operation).

A. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL SIZE.

Computers can be classified into 5 main groups according to their size as:
 Supercomputers.
 Mainframe computers.
 Minicomputers.
 Microcomputers.
 Portable computers (Laptops, Notebooks & Palmtops).

Supercomputers.
Supercomputers are the fastest, largest, most expensive & also the most powerful computers
available.
They are very fast in processing. They can perform many complex calculations in a fraction of a
second.
Most Supercomputers use multiple processors. In this case, a single task is split among the
processors for faster execution. However, all the processors are controlled by a single central
processor.
Supercomputers generate a lot of heat, & therefore require special cooling systems. Sometimes, the
whole CPU is deeped in a tank containing liquid Fluorocarbon to provide cooling.
Supercomputers are very large & heavy, and are usually kept under special environmental conditions
(i.e., in a special room).
They are operated by computer specialists. A Supercomputer can be operated by over 500 users at
the same time.
Areas where supercomputers are used:
Supercomputers are mainly used for complex scientific applications that involve many calculations
& require a lot of computational power. Some of the applications that use supercomputers include;
 Weather forecasting.
 Petroleum research.
 Defence and weapon analysis.
 Aerodynamic design and simulation.
Note. These tasks use large amounts of data, which need to be manipulated within a very short
time.
Examples of Supercomputers:
 CRAY T3D, NEC-500.

Mainframe computers.
41
 Computer Hardware
Mainframes are less powerful & less expensive than supercomputers.
They are big in size but smaller compared to Supercomputers.
Are powerful computers with very high capacities of Main storage. They also have a large backing
storage capacity.
Have a very high processing speed, i.e., can process large amounts of data very quickly.
They can support a large number of peripherals of different types (can support between 5–300
terminals).
They can handle hundreds of users at the same time, e.g., they can be operated by 200 users at a
time.
Mainframe computers are general-purpose, and can handle all kinds of problems whether scientific
or commercial.
Areas where mainframe computers are used:
Mainframe computers are mostly found in government departments, big organizations and
companies which have large information processing needs, e.g., they are used;
 In Banks & Hospitals for preparing bills, Payrolls, etc.
 In communication networks such as the Internet where they act as Servers.
 By Airline reservation systems where information of all the flights is stored.
Examples of Mainframes:
 IBM 4381.
 ICL 39 Series.
 CDC Cyber series.

Minicomputers.
A Minicomputer is physically smaller than a mainframe. However, it can support the same
peripheral devices supported by a mainframe.
A Minicomputer can support several users at a time, e.g., can be operated by 6 users at a time.
Several workstations/ terminals are connected to one central minicomputer so that the users
connected can share its resources (C.P.U time, storage, etc).
Minicomputers are easier to manufacture & maintain compared to mainframes.
Minicomputers are cheaper than the mainframes, but more costly than the microcomputers.
They handle small amounts of data, are less powerful, & have less memory than the mainframes.
Minicomputers are slow compared to mainframe computers.

Areas where minicomputers are used:

Minicomputers are used mainly in:
 Scientific laboratories & research institutions.
 Engineering plants/factories to control of chemical or mechanical processes.
 Space industry.
 Insurance companies & Banks for accounting purposes.
 Smaller organizations as Network Servers.
Example of Minicomputer:
 PDP-8 built in 1965 by Digital Equipment Corporation in U.S.

Microcomputers.
42
 Computer Hardware
Microcomputers are the PCs mostly found today in homes, schools & many small offices. They are
called Personal Computers (PCs) because they are designed to be used by one person at a time.
They consist of very few connected units, i.e. can support very few peripheral devices (usually 1 or
2).
The data processing in microcomputers is done by a Microprocessor (a single chip containing the
Arithmetic Logic unit & Control unit).
Microcomputers are smaller in size & also cheaper than minicomputers. Their design is based on
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) that confines several physical components into an IC.
They are less powerful than minicomputers & their internal memory is smaller than that of
minicomputers.
Areas where microcomputers are used:
Microcomputers are commonly used in:
 Training and learning institutions such as schools.
 Small business enterprises, and
 Communication centres as terminals.
Microcomputers have become very popular because of the following reasons:
1) Are cheaper than both mini & mainframe computers.
2) Are very fast (i.e. have high processing speeds).
3) Small in size, hence they occupy less space in an office.
4) Are more energy efficient (i.e., consume less power).
5) Are more reliable than the early Mainframe computers.
Examples:
 IBM PCs such as Apple Macintosh, Dells, Compaq, etc.

Laptops & Notebooks.

A Laptop is a PC sufficiently small & light such that a user can use it comfortably on his/her lap. It
is designed to be used by placing it on the lap.
- Laptops are very small in size & are portable. They are small enough to fit inside a briefcase; still
leaving room for other items.
- A Laptop computer operates mainly on electricity or by rechargeable batteries.
- Laptops normally have in-built disk drives & Flat screens (Liquid Crystal Displays).
- Can only support a limited number of peripheral devices.
- Have limited storage capacities.
Note. The smaller computers like Laptops tend to be more expensive than Desktop computers
because of the following reasons:
1) The technology of producing smaller devices is expensive.
2) They are convenient because they are portable.
3) They have advanced power management capabilities (they consume less power since a laptop
can operate on rechargeable batteries).

Palmtops.
Palmtops are small enough to fit in the pocket, and can be held in the palm when being used.
- Have limited storage capacities.

43
 Computer Hardware
- Palmtops are mainly used as Personal Organizers, with some minimal programs for calculations,
Word processing, Spreadsheets, & E-mail.
Example of a Palmtop; Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).
Desktop computer.
This is the name given to any computer designed to be used when placed on a desk in an office
environment.
- They are not portable.

Examples of desktop computers:

1) Home computer.
This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed for domestic use. It has
programs that are used typically for computer games or controlling family finances.
2) Personal computer (PC).
This is a microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at work or in the home
mainly for business purposes.
- A PC can support only 1 user at a time.
- PCs are mostly used in offices, schools, business premises, and at home for various
applications like computer literacy, Games, Database management, Accounting, Word
processing, Telecommunications, etc.
- A PC can be connected to a mini & mainframe computer so as to enable the user access the
facilities offered by the larger machines.
3) Workstation.
A workstation is usually a desktop computer with all the facilities but interlinked to a network.
A typical workstation works in a similar way to a Personal computer. However, it is more
advanced than a typical PC in the following ways:
i). It is larger & more powerful than a PC. E.g., workstations use 32-bit microprocessors,
while PCs use 16-bit microprocessors.
ii). It has in-built capabilities for its interconnection & operation with other computers, i.e., it
is fully connected to a computer network as any other computer on the network in its own
right.
iii). It has high resolution graphics.
iv). It has a Multi-tasking operating system, i.e. it is able to run multiple applications at the
same time.

An Embedded computer.
This is a computer that is within another device or system but is not accessed directly. E.g., there are
embedded computers operating within Petrol pumps, Watches, Cameras & Video recorders.

B. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE.

Digital computers can be classified further according to the tasks they perform either as:
 General-purpose.
 Special purpose
 Dedicated computers.
44