Learning Process
Learning Process
1.4 MEMORY
1. Memory is an integral part of the learning process. It includes three parts: the sensory
register, the short-term or working memory, and the long-term memory.
a. The sensory register receives input from the environment and quickly processes
it according to the individual’s preconceived concept of what is important. This
occurs on a subconscious level.
1. Precoding is the selective process by which the sensory register
recognizes certain stimuli and immediately transmits them to the working
memory for action.
a. Irrelevant stimuli are discarded by the sensory register.
b. The short-term memory (STM), or working memory, is the receptacle of the
information deemed important by the sensory register.
1. The information may temporarily remain in the short-term memory, or it
may rapidly fade.
a. Retention of information by the short-term memory is aided when
the information is initially categorized into systematic chunks in a
process known as coding.
b. Retention is also aided by repetition or rehearsal of the
information (rote learning).
2. Information remains in the short-term memory for longer periods when it
can be related to an individual’s previous knowledge or experiences
through a process known as recoding.
a. Recoding may be described as a process of relating incoming
information to concepts or knowledge already in memory.
b. Methods of recoding vary with the subject matter, but they
typically involve some type of association, such as mnemonics.
i. Mnemonics include, but are not limited to, acronyms,
acrostics, rhymes, and chaining.
ii. A mnemonic uses a pattern of letters, ideas, images, or
associations to assist in remembering information.
iii. The use of associations such as rhymes and mnemonics is
best suited to the short-term memory.
c. Short-term memory is the part of the memory system where
information is stored for roughly 30 seconds, after which it may
rapidly fade or be consolidated into long-term memory,
depending on the individual’s priorities. Several common steps
help retention in short-term memory. These include rehearsal or
repetition of the information and sorting or categorization into
systematic chunks.
i. The short-term memory is not only time limited; it also has
limited capacity, usually about seven bits or chunks of
information at a time. A seven-digit telephone number is
an example.
d. The ability to retrieve knowledge or skills from memory is
primarily related to two things: (1) how often that knowledge has
been used in the past and (2) how recently the knowledge has
been used.
i. These two factors are called frequency and recency of use.
Frequency and recency can be present individually or in
combination.
c. The long-term memory (LTM) is where information is stored for future use.
1. For the stored information to be useful, some special effort must have
been expended during the recoding process.
2. It should be noted that the long-term memory is a reconstruction, not a
pure recall of information or events.
1. The best way to prepare a learner to perform a task is to provide a clear, step-by-step
example. Learners need a clear picture of what they are to do and how they are to do it.
2. Learning typically follows a pattern that, if shown on a graph, would be called the
learning curve. The first part of the curve indicates rapid early improvement. Then the
curve levels off. This leveling-off of an individual’s learning rate is called a learning
plateau.
a. Learning plateaus are a normal part of the learning process and tend to be
temporary, but instructors and learners should be prepared for them.
1. Keep in mind that the apparent lack of increasing proficiency does not
necessarily mean that learning has ceased.
b. A learning plateau may signify any number of conditions. For example, the
learner may
1. Have reached capability limits.
2. Be consolidating levels of skill.
3. Have lost interest.
4. Need a more efficient method for increasing progress.
c. Instructors themselves can bring on a learning plateau by overpractice.
1. After repeating any task three or four times, give it a break to avoid
causing a learning plateau.
d. The instructor should prepare the learner for the likelihood of learning plateaus
during training to avert discouragement.
e. Instructors can help learners who fall into a learning plateau by moving them to
a different place in the curriculum and giving the plateaued task a break.
3. The development of any skill acquisition has three characteristic stages: cognitive,
associative, and automatic. An instructor must learn to recognize each stage in learner
performance in order to assess learner progress.
a. The cognitive stage of learning has a basis in factual knowledge. Since the
learner has no prior knowledge of flying, the instructor first introduces him or
her to a basic skill.
1. The learner memorizes the steps required to perform the skill.
2. As the learner carries out these memorized steps, (s)he is often unaware
of progress or may fixate on one aspect of performance.
3. Performing the skill at this stage typically requires all the learner’s
attention; distractions introduced by an instructor often cause
performance to deteriorate or stop.
a. A distraction is an unexpected event that causes the learner’s
attention to be momentarily diverted.
b. The associative stage of learning involves the storage of a skill via practice.
1. As practice continues, the learner learns to associate individual steps in
performance with likely outcomes.
2. The learner no longer performs a series of memorized steps but is able to
assess his or her progress along the way and make adjustments in
performance.
3. Performing the skill still requires deliberate attention, but the learner is
better able to deal with distractions.
c. The automatic response stage of learning produces automaticity, which is one of
the by-products of continued practice.
1. As procedures become automatic, less attention is required to carry them
out, so it is possible to do other things simultaneously, or at least do
other things more comfortably.
2. By this stage, learner performance of the skill is rapid and smooth. The
learner devotes much less deliberate attention to performance and may
be able to carry on a conversation or perform other tasks while
performing the skill.
3. The learner makes far fewer adjustments during his or her performance,
and these adjustments tend to be small.
4. The learner may no longer be able to remember the individual steps in
the procedure or explain how to perform the skill.
5. An example of a learner who has reached the automatic response stage is
a learner who can fly an ILS approach while simultaneously handling the
radio communications.
4. There are three types of practice, each of which yields particular results in acquiring
skills.
a. During deliberate practice, the learner practices specific areas for improvement
and receives specific feedback after practice.
1. Studies of skill learning suggest a learner achieves better results if
distractions are avoided during deliberate practice.
2. When feedback is needed to correct learner performance, it should be
brief and explicit.
b. Blocked practice is practicing the same drill until the movement becomes
automatic.
1. Doing the same task over and over leads to better short-term
performance but poorer long-term learning.
2. It tends to fool not only the learner but also the instructor into thinking
the skills have been well learned.
c. Random practice mixes the skills to be acquired throughout the practice session.
1. This type of practice leads to better retention because, by performing a
series of separate skills in a random order, the learner starts to recognize
the similarities and differences of each skill, which makes the practice
more meaningful.
2. The learner also is able to store the skill more effectively in the long-term
memory.