NOTE:

• PLEASE DISREGARD THE FORMULAS GIVEN IN THIS REPORT, IT IS

INNACURATE AND LACK SOME ELEMENTS TY!!!
TRAFFIC FLOW
 What is Traffic Flow?
is the study of interactions between travelers
and infrastructure with the aim of understanding
and developing an optimal transport network with
efficient movement of traffic and minimal traffic
congestion problems.
TYPES OF TRAFFIC FLOW
TYPES OF TRAFFIC FLOW
Uninterrupted Flow
- is a traffic flow regulated by
vehicle-vehicle interaction
and interactions between
vehicles and the roadway.

Ex.
• Freeways
• Multilane Highways
• Two-lane Highways
TYPES OF TRAFFIC FLOW
Interrupted Flow
- is a traffic flow regulated by
an external means such as a
traffic signal.
- Under interrupted flow
conditions, vehicle-vehicle
interactions and vehicle-
roadway interaction play a
secondary part.
Ex.
• Signalized Streets
• Roundabouts
• Roads with Pedestrian Crossing
 ROADSPACE
REQUIREMENTS
TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
 What is Traffic Flow Theory?
Traffic Flow Theory is a tool that helps transportation
engineers understand and express the properties of traffic flow.
At any given time, there are millions of vehicles on our
roadways. These vehicles interact with each other and impact
the overall movement of traffic, or the traffic flow.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
TRAFFIC FLOW
FLOW DENSITY

VELOCITY
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAFFIC FLOW
FLOW(q)
Flow is the rate at which vehicles pass a given point on the roadway and is normally given in terms of
vehicles per hour (veh/hr). Note that the unit of flow is either vehicles per min (veh/min) or vehicles per day
(veh/day) depending on the observation period.

𝑛
𝑞=
𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
Where:
q – traffic flow in vehicles per unit time
n - number of vehicles passing some designated length of roadway point
t - duration of time interval, period of observation
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAFFIC FLOW
DENSITY(k)
Density refers to the number of vehicles present on a given length of roadway. Normally,
density is reported in terms of vehicles per mile (veh/m) or vehicles per kilometer (veh/Km).

𝑛
𝑘=
𝑙
Where:

k – traffic density in vehicles per unit distance

n – number of vehicles occupying some length of roadway at some specified time
l – length of roadway
 High Density and Low Density

High densities indicate that individual vehicles are very

close together, while low densities imply greater distances
between vehicles.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAFFIC FLOW
SPEED(s)
The speed of a vehicle is defined as the distance it travels per unit of time. Measuring speed
of traffic is not as obvious as it may seem; we can average the measurement of the speeds of
individual vehicles over time or over space, and each produces slightly different results.

𝑙
𝑠=
𝑡
Where:

s – speed of the vehicle

l – length of roadway used for travel time measure of vehicles
t – period of time
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAFFIC FLOW
TIME MEAN SPEED(𝜈ഥ𝑡 )
arithmetic mean of speeds of vehicles passing a point.
1
𝜈ഥ𝑡 = 𝑥ҧ
𝑁

Where:

𝜈ഥ𝑡 – time mean speed

𝑥ҧ – mean of speed of vehicles
N – no. of measured vehicle
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAFFIC FLOW
SPACE MEAN SPEED(𝑣ഥ𝑠 )
is defined as the harmonic mean of speeds passing a point during a period of time.
It also equals the average speeds over a length of roadway.

𝑁
𝑣ഥ𝑠 = 𝑁
1
෍
Where: 𝑛=1 𝜈𝑛
𝑣ഥ𝑠 – space mean speed
𝑁
1
෍ – arithmetic mean of speed of vehicles
𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛
N – no. of measured vehicle
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAFFIC FLOW
Relating Time and Space Mean Speed
Note that the time mean speed is average speed past a point as distinct from space mean
speed which is average speed along a length.

The two speeds are related as:

𝜎𝑠2
𝜈ഥ𝑡 =
Where: 𝑣ഥ𝑠
𝜈ഥ𝑡 – time mean speed
𝜎𝑠 – population standard deviation of speed
𝑣ഥ𝑠 – space mean speed
 Speed-Flow-Density Relationship
Speed, flow, and density are all related to each other. The relationships
between speed and density are not difficult to observe in the real world, while the
effects of speed and density on flow are not quite as apparent.
Under uninterrupted flow conditions, speed, density, and flow are all related
by the following equation:

𝑞 = 𝑘𝑣
Where:
q = Flow (veh/hr)
v = Speed (miles/hr, Km/hr)
k = Density (veh/mile, veh/Km)
TRAFFIC FLOW PARAMETERS
 TRAFFIC FLOW PARAMETERS
VOLUME
Volume is simply the number of vehicles that pass a given point on the roadway in a
specified period of time. By counting the number of vehicles that pass a point on the roadway
during a 15-minute period, you can arrive at the 15-minute volume. Volume is commonly converted
directly to flow (q), which is a more useful parameter.

PEAK HOUR FACTOR (PHF)

The ratio of the hourly flow rate ( q60) divided by the peak 15-minute rate of flow expressed
as an hourly flow (q15). PHF= q60/ q15
 TRAFFIC FLOW PARAMETERS

HEADWAY (h)
Headway is a measure of the temporal space between two vehicles. Specifically, the headway
is the time that elapses between the arrival of the leading vehicle and the following vehicle at the
designated test point.
 TRAFFIC FLOW PARAMETERS

*TIME HEADWAY (ℎ𝑡 )

difference between the time when the front of a vehicle arrives at a point on the
highway and the time the front of the next vehicle arrives at the same point (in seconds).

ℎത 𝑡 = 𝑡ҧℎത𝑆
Where:

ℎത 𝑡 - Average Time Headway

𝑡ҧ - Average Travel Time per Unit Distance
ℎത𝑆 - Average Space Headway
 TRAFFIC FLOW PARAMETERS

*SPACE HEADWAY (ℎ𝑠 )

difference in position between the front of a vehicle and the front of the next vehicle (in
meters).

ℎത 𝑠 = 𝜈ഥ𝑆 ℎത 𝑡
Where:

ℎത 𝑠 - Average Space Headway

𝜈ഥ𝑆 - Space Mean Speed
ℎത 𝑡 - Average Time Headway
DENSITY AND SPACE HEADWAY
RELATION
1
𝑘=
Where:
ℎ𝑠
𝑘 - density
ℎ𝑠 - Average Space Mean Headway
 TRAFFIC FLOW PARAMETERS

SPACING (s)
Spacing is the physical distance, usually reported in feet or meters, between the front
bumper of the leading vehicle and the front bumper of the following vehicle.
Complements headway, as it describes the same space in another way. Spacing is the
product of speed and headway.
 TRAFFIC FLOW PARAMETERS

GAP (g)
Gap is very similar to headway, except that it is a measure of the time that elapses
between the departure of the first vehicle and the arrival of the second at the designated
test point.
Gap is a measure of the time between the rear bumper of the first vehicle and the
front bumper of the second vehicle, where headway focuses on front-to-front times.
Gap is usually reported in units of seconds.
 TRAFFIC FLOW PARAMETERS

CLEARANCE (c)
Clearance is similar to spacing, except that the clearance is the distance between the
rear bumper of the leading vehicle and the front bumper of the following vehicle. The
clearance is equivalent to the spacing minus the length of the leading vehicle.

Clearance, like spacing, is usually reported in units of feet (ft) or meters (m).
FUNDAMENTAL DIAGRAMS OF
TRAFFIC FLOW
 Traditional Model (Parabolic)
Properties of the traditional fundamental diagram.

•When density on the highway is zero, the flow is also zero because there are no vehicles on the highway as
density increases, flow increases.
•When the density reaches a maximum jam density (𝑘𝑗 ), flow must be zero because vehicles will line up end
to end.
•Flow will also increase to a maximum value (𝑞𝑚 ), increases in density beyond that point result in reductions
of flow.
•Speed is space mean speed.
•At density = 0, speed is free flow (𝑣𝑓 ). The upper half of the flow curve is uncongested, the lower half is
congested.
•The slope of the flow density curve gives speed. Rise/Run = Flow/Density = Vehicles per hour/ Vehicles per
km = km / hour.
Fundamental Diagram of traffic
Observation (Triangular or Truncated Triangular)
Actual traffic data is often much noisier than idealized models suggest. However,
what we tend to see is that as density rises, speed is unchanged to a point (capacity) and then
begins to drop if it is affected by downstream traffic (queue spillbacks).

For a single link, the relationship between flow and density is thus more triangular
than parabolic. When we aggregate multiple links together (e.g. a network), we see a more
parabolic shape.
 MICROSCOPIC AND
MACROSCOPIC MODELS
 Microscopic Models
Microscopic models predict the following behavior of cars (their change in speed
and position) as a function of the behavior of the leading vehicle.

Macroscopic Models
Macroscopic traffic flow theory relates traffic flow, running speed, and density.
Analogizing traffic to a stream, it has principally been developed for limited access roadways
(Leutzbach 1988).
The fundamental relationship “𝑞 = 𝑘𝑣 ” (flow (q) equals density (k) multiplied by
speed (v)) is illustrated by the fundamental diagram.
QUEUING THEORY
ANALYSIS
 QUEUING THEORY ANALYIS
What is QUEUING?

Any obstruction of traffic flow results in a queue. Traffic

queues in congested periods is a source of considerable delay and
loss of performance.

Under extreme conditions queuing delay can account for 90%

or more of a motorist’s total trip travel time.
 QUEUING THEORY ANALYIS
Queuing Theory Acronyms
• FIFO - “first in first out”
• LIFO - “last in first out”
• a/d/N notation :
a - arrival type (either D- deterministic, or mechanistic [i.e.,
exponential distribution or similar])
d - departure type (either D- deterministic, or mechanistic)
N - number of “channels”
 QUEUING THEORY ANALYIS
Notation Examples
D/D/1
– Deterministic arrivals
– Deterministic departures
– One departure channel

M/D/1
– Exponential arrivals
– Deterministic departures
– One departure channel
 QUEUING THEORY ANALYIS
D/D/1 Queuing Example
• Entrance gate to National Park
• Deterministic arrivals and departures, one fee booth, first in first out
• At the opening of the booth (8:00am), there is no queue, cars arrive at a
rate of 480 veh/hr for 20 minutes and then changes to 120 veh/hr
• The fee booth attendant spends 15seconds with each car

Determine the following:

– What is the longest queue? When does it occur?
– When will the queue dissipate?
– What is the total time of delay by all vehicles?
– What is the average delay, longest delay?
– What delay is experienced by the 200th car to arrive?
 QUEUING THEORY ANALYIS
D/D/1 Queuing Example
Arrival rate (denoted as 𝜆)
𝜆 = 480 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ℎ 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛/ℎ = 8 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ min 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 20 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜆 = 120 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ℎ 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛/ℎ = 2 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ min 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 20 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Departure rate (denoted as 𝜇)

𝜇 = 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑚𝑖𝑛 15 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑣𝑒ℎ = 4 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ min
 QUEUING THEORY ANALYIS
D/D/1 Queuing Example
Let t number of minutes after start of queue

Vehicle arrival can be written as :

8𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 20 𝑚𝑖𝑛
160 + 2 𝑡 − 20 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 20 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Vehicle departure can be written as 4 𝑡

 QUEUING THEORY ANALYIS
D/D/1 Queuing Example
What is the longest vehicle queue? When does it occur?
Occurs at 20th minute
Vehicle queue = 80

When will the queue dissipate?

160 + 2 𝑡 − 20 = 4t – t = 60 min
Since queue started at 8am, 240 vehicles would have arrived, and
240 vehicles would have departed
 QUEUING THEORY ANALYIS
D/D/1 Queuing Example
• Easy graphical interpretation
• Mathematical construct is also easy
 QUEUING THEORY ANALYIS
M/D/1 Queuing Example
• Arrival pattern is not often deterministic
• Often random (unless peak periods)
• Graphical solution is sometime difficult
• However, mathematical construct is straightforward
Define a new term traffic density (𝜌):
𝜌=𝜆𝜇
𝜆: average vehicle arrival rate(vehicle per unit time)
𝜇: average vehicle departure rate (vehicle per unit time)
𝜌: traffic intensity (unitless)
QUEUING THEORY
 Consider a simple situation in which traffic is arriving at an
intersection approach in a uniform manner, with equal and constant
headways between each vehicle. This constant flow rate is shown in the
figure below.

Figure 1: Constant Arrival Flow

 During the red interval for the approach, vehicles cannot depart from the
intersection and consequently, a queue of vehicles is formed. When the signal
changes to green, the vehicles depart at the saturation flow rate until the standing
queue is cleared. Once the queue is cleared, the departure flow rate is equal to the
arrival flow rate. Figure 2 illustrates this behavior.

Figure 2: Departure Flow or Service

Flow versus Time
 The combined effect of the arrival and departure flow rates is illustrated by
graphing queue length versus time. During the red interval, the line of vehicles waiting
at the intersection begins to increase. The queue reaches its maximum length at the
end of the red interval. When the signal changes to green, the queue begins to clear as
vehicles depart from the intersection at the saturation flow rate. See the figure below.

Figure 3: Queue Length versus Time

 There is another graph that allows us to glean even more information from our
model. Imagine a plot where the x-axis is time, and the y-axis contains the vehicle numbers
according to the order of their arrival. Vehicle one would be the first vehicle to arrive during
the red interval and would be the lowest vehicle on the y-axis. If you were to plot the arrival
and departure (service) times for each vehicle, you would get a triangle as shown in figure 4
below.

Figure 4: Vehicles versus Time

 While this graph may not seem informative at first, a second look reveals its
insights. For a given time, the difference between the arrival pattern and the service
pattern is the queue length. For a given vehicle, the difference between the service
pattern and the arrival pattern is the vehicle delay. In addition, the area of the triangle
is equivalent to the total delay for all of the vehicles. See figure 5 below.

Figure 5: Graph Properties

As you would expect, the first vehicle to be stopped by
the red signal experiences the most delay. In addition,
the queue is longest just before the green interval
begins.
Queuing theory provides a foundation for the
optimization of signal timing.
LEVEL OF ASSESMENT
ANALYSIS
 LEVEL OF ASSESMENT
There is a relationship between traffic speed, volume and
density for a highway, and how these factors relate to Level of
Service ratings.

Traffic speed and flow on urban streets are determined

primarily by intersection capacity, which is affected by traffic volumes
on cross streets and left turn signal phases.
 LEVEL OF ASSESMENT
For example, a 5% reduction in traffic volumes on a
congested highway (for example, from 2,000 to 1,900
vehicles per hour) may cause a 10-30% increase in average
vehicle speeds (for example, increasing traffic speeds from
35 to 45 miles per hour).

As a result, even relatively small changes in traffic

volume or capacity on congested roads can provide relatively
large reductions in traffic delays.
 LEVEL OF ASSESMENT

As these tables indicate, traffic congestion is a

non-linear function, meaning that a small reduction in
urban-peak traffic volume can cause a proportionally
larger reduction in delay.
 LEVEL OF ASSESMENT
(A) Free Flow Traffic.
Users are practically unaffected by the presence of other vehicles on a
road section. The choice of speed and the maneuverability are free. The level
of comfort is excellent, as drivers need minimal attention. The volume-to-
capacity ratio is usually below 0.2.

(B) Steady Traffic.

The presence of other vehicles begins to affect the behavior of
individual drivers. The choice of the speed is free, but the maneuverability has
somewhat decreased. The comfort is excellent, as drivers simply need to keep
an eye on nearby vehicles.
 LEVEL OF ASSESMENT
(C) Steady Traffic but Limited.
The presence of other vehicles affects drivers. The choice of the speed
is affected, and maneuvering requires vigilance. The level of comfort decreases
quickly at this level, because drivers have a growing impression of being caught
between other vehicles.

(D) Steady Traffic at High Density.

The speed and the maneuverability are severely reduced. Low level of
comfort for drivers, as collisions with other vehicles, must constantly be
avoided. A slight increase in the traffic risks causing some operational
problems and saturating the network.
 LEVEL OF ASSESMENT
(E) Traffic at Saturation.
Low but uniform speed. Maneuverability is possible only under
constraint for another vehicle. Users are in a state of frustration.

(F) Congestion.
Unstable speed with the formation of waiting lines at several points.
Cycles of stop and departure with no apparent pattern because created by the
behavior of other drivers. A high level of vigilance is required for the user with
practically no comfort. At this level, the volume-to-capacity ratio exceeds 1,
implying that the road segment is used above design capacity.
 LEVEL OF ASSESMENT
The rate of traffic service is the maximal hourly rate that can
cross a point or a road section according to road, traffic, and control
conditions. Therefore, each road infrastructure has five traffic rates
of service (level F is not used because unstable).

Traffic reports also use color codes to illustrate traffic

conditions, such as green (levels A and B), yellow (levels C and D),
and red (levels E and F).