AVIATION TOOLS

PROPRIETARY NOTICE
This Technical Data and the information embodied herein is the property of and proprietary to PTC
Aviation Training Center, and shall not, without prior written permission from PTC Aviation Training
Center be disclosed in whole or in part to third parties. This notice shall be included on any
reproduction of this data in whole or in part.

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Engineer’s Rule

• An engineer’s rule is made from high-carbon steel

and is graduated in Imperial and Metric units.
• Rulers are classified by the length and width of
their graduated portion, and must be kept free
from rust and should not be subjected to rough
usage.
• The most common engineer’s rule has a length of
300mm (1ft) .
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Engineer’s Rule

• The increment graduation marks are etched

into the rule surface providing a grooved
recess.
• These grooves enable dividers to be set to a
greater accuracy, as the divider points can be
felt to ‘drop in’ to the recess.

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Engineer’s Rule

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Scriber

• A scriber is used for marking lines on the

surface of metals.
• Scribers are made from high-carbon steel and
are classified by their length.
• One end of the scriber may be bent at right
angles to enable lines to be scribed in difficult
places such as through a hole.

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Scriber

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Scriber

• The process of using the scriber is referred to

as marking-out and may require the addition of
other hand tools and equipment.
• All scribed lines on soft materials must only be
cutting (boundary) lines, and none must be
left on the surface of the metal on completion,
as they can cause cracks.

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Scriber

• Other lines, including bend lines and lines for

the position of rivets must be marked with a
sharp pencil.
• When not in use (and as with other tools with
sharp points), placing pieces of cork, plastic or
similar material over their points will protect
them.

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Key-Seat Rule

• Key-seat rules are used for marking-off lines,

parallel to the axis, on the surface of tubes or
round bars.
• Sometimes referred to as ‘Box Squares’, key-
seat rules are usually graduated and are
classified by their length.
• Scribing lines with a key-seat rule on shaft for
marking-off keyway
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Key-Seat Rule

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Key-Seat Rule

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Fitter’s Square

• The fitter’s square is used for setting out lines

at right angles to an edge or surface, and for
checking right angular work for ‘truth’.
• Squares are made, to very fine limits, of high-
carbon steel and are classified by the length of the
blade.
• The blade and the stock have their opposing edges
ground truly parallel with the two limbs set at
exactly 90  to each other.
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Fitter’s Square

• To preserve its accuracy it is essential that it is

handled carefully at all times and, when not in
use, kept in a protective case or box.

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Fitter’s Square

• When testing a square for accuracy, it may be

checked for truth against an accurately
machined right-angular-test-piece such as a ‘V’
block or master square.

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Fitter’s Square

• If this is not possible, a test may be carried out

as follows:
–Place the stock against the true edge of a flat
surface and scribing a line on the surface, using
the outside edge of the blade
–Turn the square over and check the outside edge
of the blade against the previously scribed line.

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Fitter’s Square

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Fitter’s Square

• If the square is accurate, the blade edge and

the scribed line will be in line. In a similar
manner, the inside edge of the blade can be
tested.

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The Combination Set

• The Combination Set, consists of a graduated

steel rule, which has a machined groove
running along the center of its entire length.
• The rule can be slid-into three different
“heads” and secured, by a locking screw
device, so that the combination of rule and
“head” will enable certain tasks to be
accomplished.
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The Combination Set

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The Combination Set

• The Square Head (or Stock Head) has one

working surface at 90° and another at 45° to
the locked rule.
• This allows the tool to be used, either in a
similar manner to the Fitter’s Square (to check
the square-ness of work), or it may be used for
the marking out of mitre joints and bevels.

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The Combination Set

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The Combination Set

• A spirit level and scriber are sometimes

accommodated in the base of the Square Head,
to permit a check to be done on the horizontal
or vertical accuracy of work pieces.

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The Combination Set

• The Centre Head is used, with the rule, to

locate the centre line of bars or round tubes.

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The Combination Set

• The Protractor Head also has a spirit level,

which rotates with the head, and allows the
head to be used, singly, as a clinometer, or in
conjunction with the rule, it may be used to
mark out and check angles on work pieces.

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The Combination Set

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The Combination Set

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Surface Tables/Plates

• The accuracy of a planed-table depends upon

the accuracy of the machine producing it.
• Surfaces of grade ‘A’ standard would only be
used in Standards Rooms, grade ‘B’ surfaces
are for inspection work while grade ‘C’ surface
plates and tables would be found in typical
workshops.

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Surface Tables/Plates

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V-Blocks

• V-Blocks are accurately machined, six-sided,

rectangular blocks (generally made of cast
iron), which may be used on surface plates and
tables to hold a round bar, which can then be
marked in a variety of ways to give centers and
lines parallel to its side.

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V-Blocks

• V-blocks are made in matching-pairs, which

must always be used together, so that a block
of one pair should not be used with one of
another pair.
• This is because each pair was cut from the
same machined stock to ensure they are of
identical size regardless of the tolerance of the
machine from which they were manufactured.
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V-Blocks

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Surface Gauge (Scribing
Block)
• A Surface Gauge, or Scribing Block, is another
marking out tool, used, on a surface plate or
table, in conjunction with a scriber (and,
occasionally, with V-blocks), for the marking of
lines, which are parallel to a true surface.

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Surface Gauge (Scribing
Block)
• The scriber is clamped to a spindle, which can
be accurately pivoted, by means of a fine
adjustment screw, on the heavy base.
• The base, which is generally made from cast
iron(or hardened steel) is machined to be as
flat as the surface plate on which it slides.

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Surface Gauge (Scribing
Block)

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Spring Dividers

• Dividers are used to set out distances and to

scribe arcs and circles.
• The legs are made of high-carbon steel, the
spring made of spring steel and the adjusting
mechanism of mild steel.

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Spring Dividers

• The points should be kept sharp and of equal

length by stoning only the outside of the legs.
• If grinding is used to sharpen the points, it
must be done very carefully, as the temper of
the points can be drawn, leaving them soft.
• The points of dividers should be protected,
when not in use, in a similar manner to those
of scribers and such tools.
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Trammels

• Used for drawing circles of large diameter or

stepping off, distances beyond the limit of
dividers.
• The head or point are always used in pairs and
are fixed to a rectangular or round beam of
convenient length one of the heads is usually
fitted with a fine adjustment.

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Trammels

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Trammels

Measuring the bow in a strut, using a three-legged Trammel and

surface plate

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Calipers

• Calipers are a type of measuring device,

typically used to measure diameters and
distances or for comparing sizes.

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Calipers

• The three basic types of caliper are:

– Outside Calipers: Used to measure the
outside diameter of an object and have legs
that point inwards.
– Inside Calipers: Used to measure the inside
of a hole and have legs that point outwards.

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Calipers

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Calipers

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Calipers

• Odd-Leg Calipers (Hermaphrodite or 'Jenny’ Calipers)

• This tool is really half calipers and half dividers.
• It may be used for scribing arcs on metal surfaces
from an edge, for scribing lines parallel to an edge
or surface, (provided accuracy is not of great
importance), and for finding the center of a round
bar.

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Calipers

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Hammers

• Hammers are classified by their weight and

type of head.
• Steel heads are forged and manufactured from
high-carbon steel.
• Most shafts are made from straight-grained
Ash or Hickory and are secured to the head by
wedging.

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Hammers

Ball Pein
• The flat surface is used for most general-purpose
work, whilst the ball pein is used primarily for
riveting-type operations.

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Hammers

Straight Pein
• Used for general work. The narrow, straight pein
being particularly suitable for use to create
vertical creases on sheet metal plates.

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Hammers

Cross Pein
• The axis of the pein is at 90° to that of the shaft.

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Hammers

Hide/Copper Face
The rawhide facing enables heavy blows to be
delivered without damaging the surface of the
work; while the copper face may be used for
heavier types of work than hide faced hammers.

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Hammers

Rubber Head and Plastic Face

• More modern versions of the Hide Face hammer.
Can often have one of each type of face on each
end of the head.

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Hammers

• The weight of hammer required can be found

with experience.
• Before use, it must be ensured that the head is
secure on the shaft.
• The shaft should be gripped close to the end
opposite the head, as proper control is not
possible if it is held close to the head.

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Punches

Center Punch
Center Punches are relatively sharp-pointed tools,
used to make an indentation in metal. The
indentation aids in locating the center of a hole and
for starting a drill bit when drilling the hole.

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Punches

Drill Bit

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Punches

Pin Punches
• As their name implies, are the tools to be used for
the removal of pins and rivets from their
respective holes.
• The driving end of a Pin Punch is cut flat, and its
diameter ground to match that of the pin or rivet
which is being driven from its hole.

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Punches

• Pin Punches may be found with parallel or tapered

driving ends.

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Punches

• Over a period of time, the hammered shank end

of a punch, tends to deform into the shape of a
mushroom.
• To reduce the chance of a metal chip flying off and
causing injury, during punching operations, the
deformation should be removed and the shank
end returned to its original shape by the use of a
bench grinder.
• Eye or face protection should always be used
when using punches of any type.
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Punches

Hollow Punches
• Hollow Punches are used to punch out bolt (or stud)
holes in soft, thin sheets, such as shimming or gasket
materials, which are difficult to cut with drills.

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Punches

Hollow Punches
• The material being cut,
should be supported by
a wooden block, to
avoid damaging the
cutting end of the
punch.

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Punches

Drift
• Drifts may be fashioned
from aluminum alloy,
copper or steel bars (or
tubes), and are used for
driving out bearings, bushes
or shafts from their
respective cages or
housings.
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Punches

Drift
• Only steel drifts should be
used on bearings, due to
the possibility of small
metal chips, from the softer
metals, breaking off and
fouling the bearing
assemblies.

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Punches

Drift Pin
• A drift "punch" is misleadingly named; it is not
used as a punch in the traditional sense of the
term.
• A drift punch, or drift pin, is used as an aid in
aligning bolt or rivet holes prior to inserting a
fastener.

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Punches

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Chisels

• Metal-cutting chisels (also called Cold Chisels)

are used in conjunction with steel hammers.
• Chisels are forged, usually using short lengths
of hexagonal-sectioned, high-carbon steel bars,
with the cutting edge hardened and tempered.

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Chisels

• To prevent flying particles when hammering,

the striking-end is not hardened and is,
therefore, comparatively softer.
• Periodically, the burr that forms at the striking-
end of the chisel, should (in a similar manner
to punches), be removed by filing or grinding.

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Chisels

• Chisels are usually made from high carbon

steel, hardened and tempered or nickel alloy
steel specially heat treated to give a lasting
cutting edge.
• The chamfered head is left soft otherwise it
would crack under hammer blows.

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Chisels

• Chisels are classified by their shape, overall

length, cross-section of shank and width of
cut. There are four principal shapes of chisels,
in general use:
 Flat
 Cross-Cut
 Diamond-Point
 Half-Round
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Chisels

• Flat
• Used for general chipping work such as
parting metal sheet or cutting flat surfaces
prior to filing.

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Chisels

• Crosscut
• Used for cutting grooves in a surface.

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Chisels

• Diamond Point

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Chisels

• Half Round (or Round Nose)

• Used for cutting half round bottomed grooves
and may also be used for rectifying incorrect
drill starts.

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Chisels

• Selecting the Correct Chisel for the job

–Consideration must be given to both the nature of
the work and the material to be cut. The nature of
the work governs the size and shape of the chisel.
–The type of material governs the cutting angle. For
example, the cutting angle of aluminum is 30°,
mild steel 60°, hard steel 70-75°.

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Chisels

• Care of Chisels
–The cutting edge of a high carbon steel chisel is
sharpened on a grindstone. During the process,
the cutting edge must be kept as cool as possible
by frequent immersion in water.
–The end of the chisel struck by the hammer should
be kept flat and free from ragged ends by grinding.

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Vices

• Bench Vice
–The bench vice provides rigid support for a piece
of work. It allows both hands to be used when
sawing, filing, drilling, bending etc.
–The body of the bench vice is normally
manufactured from cast iron and has detachable
hardened, steel jaws.

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Vices

• Bench Vice
–It is made in two parts:
• The main body, which contains a fixed nut and
is bolted to the work bench.
• The sliding part which fits into the main body
and is moved backwards and forwards by
means of a screw thread.

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Vices

• Bench Vice

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Hacksaws

Frame
• The hacksaw has a mild steel frame which may be of
fixed length or adjustable.
• Adjustable hacksaws can take blades of different
length.
• The frame has two pins which pass through the
holes at each end of the blade. One of the pins is
screw mounted to secure the blade and apply the
correct tension.
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Hacksaws

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Hacksaws

Hacksaw Blades
• Hacksaw blades are classified by their length,
material, and number of teeth per inch (pitch).
• Saw blades are made of high carbon steel, alloy steel
or high speed steel. They are supplied according to
material, hardening, length and pitch.

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Hacksaws

• Choice of Blade

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Hacksaws

• Blade Pitch
–It is the grading according to the number of teeth
per 25mm (1 inch).
• Coarse blade (18T) is most suitable for soft
materials and thick work pieces.
• Medium blade (24T) is suitable for steel pipes.
• Fine blade (32T) is suitable for the thin metal
sheets and thin copper pipes.

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Hacksaws

Choice of Blade
• The choice of blades depends upon the type of
material to be cut.
• Soft metals (e.g. brass, aluminum) require coarse
blades.
• Hard metals (e.g. iron and steel) require fine
blades.

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Hacksaws

Choice of Blade
• The shape and thickness of the material must also be
considered.
–At least three (3) teeth must be in contact with
the material at any time. Therefore, fine blades
must always be used for tubing and thin metals.

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Hacksaws

• Choice of Blade

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Hacksaws

• Length
–The length of the blade is determined by the
distance between the outside edges of the holes,
which fit over the pegs.
• Set
–The teeth have a "set" to either side alternately,
which causes the blade to cut a slit wider than the
thickness of the blade, to prevent jamming.

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Hacksaws

• Saw blades are given an

alternate ‘set’, during
manufacture, which results
in the cutting slot (the ‘kerf’)
being wider than the blade
thickness (refer to figure ).
• This prevents the blade from
jamming, which may result in
a bent or broken blade.

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Hacksaws

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Hacksaws

Safety and Care of Hacksaw

• Choose the correct type of blade.
• Choose the correct length of blade with the
correct pitch (teeth per inch).
• Fit the blade to the frame with the teeth pointing
away from the handle.

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Hacksaws

Safety and Care of Hacksaw

• The blade mountings must be set in the most
convenient position with the teeth facing away
from the handle. This allows the blade to cut on
the more efficient, forward stroke.
• Tension the blade correctly by taking up the slack
and applying three full turns of the wing nut.

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Hacksaws

Safety and Care of Hacksaw

• Make sure that the work is secured rigidly in the
vice.
• Fit the work in the vice so that the saw cut will be
vertical if possible and that the saw cut will come
as close to the vice as possible to prevent chatter.

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Hacksaws

Safety and Care of Hacksaw

–Hand pressure should be applied on the forward
stroke and relieved on the return stroke. The full
length of the blade should be used for each stroke,
if at all possible.
–This action prolongs the life of the blade, lessens
the chance of teeth breaking away from the blade
and reduces the chance of the saw jamming
during use.
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Hacksaws

• Safety and Care of Hacksaw

• Use long steady strokes (no more than 50 strokes
per minute) releasing the pressure on the back
stroke.
• After use, release the tension on the blade.

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Sheet Metal Shears and
Snips
• Long, straight cuts, across a piece of sheet
metal, are made on a guillotine, which may
also be referred to as ‘squaring shears’.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 93

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Sheet Metal Shears and
Snips
• Shears are another type of cutting tool used
on aircraft sheet metal.
• The fabrication of smaller parts requires
hand cutting, followed with further
trimming to the final dimensions.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 94

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Sheet Metal Shears and
Snips
• This can be achieved with different types of
shears, known as Tinman’s Shears or Aviation
Snips.
• They can vary in length from 175 mm (7 in) up
to 300 mm (12 in) and can be straight or
curved cutting.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 95

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Sheet Metal Shears and
Snips
• Straight shears (or snips) are primarily for
cutting straight or wide radius curves.
• Curved shears are dedicated solely to cutting
curves.
• Shears are colour coded according to the type.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 96

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Sheet Metal Shears and
Snips

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 97

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Files

• Files are cutting tools used for removing

relatively small amounts of metal after the
piece of work has been cut to the approximate
dimensions using a hacksaw.
• By using the correct types of files, a very
accurate finish can be obtained.

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Files

• Files are made from High Carbon Steel and

consist of the blade, which is hardened and
tempered, and a tang which is left relatively
soft to provide strength.
• A handle is fitted, usually made from wood
(Beech or Ash) and a ferrule made from steel
or brass. The ferrule prevents the wooden
handle from splitting.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 99
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Files

• File Classification
 Length
 Cut
 Section
 Grade

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 100

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Files

Length
• This is measured from the tip to the shoulder.

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Files

Section
–Flat
• Used for general purposes.
• May be single cut or double cut on both
sides.

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Files

Section
–Half Round
• This file tapers towards the tip.
• One surface is flat and the other is curved. It
is a general purpose file which can also be
used for filing concave surfaces.
• It is double cut on both sides.

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Files

Section
–Triangular or Three Square
• This file has three sides, each at 60° to the
other.
• It tapers towards the tip and is used for filing
in awkward corners and angles less than 90°.
It is double cut on all surfaces.

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Files

Section
–Square
• Used for slotting, grooving and finishing
square edges.
• It tapers for one third of its length and is
double cut on all surfaces.

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Files

Section
–Round
• Used for filing out concave surfaces and
easing out holes.
• Usually double cut and tapering towards the
end. Small round files are sometimes called
rat tails.

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Files

Cut
• Various arrangements of cutting teeth are
provided to give the most satisfactory results on
different materials.

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Files

• Single Cut Files

– are used mainly on hard
metals.
– The teeth are formed by a
series of cuts parallel to each
other but at an angle to the
length of the file.
– The teeth do not clog easily
on this type of file.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 108
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Files

• Single Cut Files

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Files

• Double Cut Files

– Are the most widely used.
– They have two series of cuts
which cross each other, one
series being coarser than the
other.
– The teeth of these files tend to
clog more easily than single
cut files.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 110
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Files

• Dreadnought Files
• Are suitable for heavy
cutting on broad soft
metals.
• They are single cut files but
with teeth curved in an arc.

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Files

• Rasp Files
– Are used for coarse work on
soft materials such as lead
and wood.
– Each tooth is cut separately
by means of a single pointed
tool.

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Files

Grade
• The rate of cutting and the finish given to the work
depends on the depth and spacing of the cutting
teeth.

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Files

Grade
–The various grades are:
• Bastard
–A coarse grade which removes metal fairly
quickly. Intended for roughing out, or
completion of a job where finish is
unimportant.

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Files

Grade
–The various grades are:
• Second Cut
–A finer grade which gives a better finish but
is slower cutting.
• Smooth
–The teeth are shallow and closely set
enabling a good finish to be obtained. They
cut comparatively slowly and should be
used for finishing work only.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 115
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Files

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 116

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Files

• Filing Methods
 Cross filing is used for general purpose work and
for squaring and roughing down.
 Draw filing is used for finishing.
 Once the cross filing has been completed, the
surfaces can be draw filed until all the cross filing
marks have disappeared. This type of filing is more
accurate than using emery cloth.

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Files

• Precautions When Using Files

 Never use a file without a handle.
 The tang of this file may injure your hand or wrist
if the file jams. It is also impossible to maintain
proper control of the file without a handle.
 Always use the length and grade of file appropriate
to the job being done.

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Files

• Precautions When Using Files

 Secure the work in the vice so that it is rigid and
positioned to enable filing to be done horizontally.
 Whenever possible use the full length of the file
for each stroke.
 Do not rush the stroke and as the file only cuts on
the forward stroke. Relieve the pressure on the
return.

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Files

• Precautions When Using Files

 Keep the file teeth clean using a scratch card.
 Where clogging material cannot be removed by
this method, pick it out with a sharp point.
 Chalk rubbed on to the teeth during the final finish
helps prevent clogging.

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Files

• Precautions When Using Files

 The blades are brittle and their teeth are sharp.
 To prevent breakage or dulling of teeth, store them
separately after use and do not strike them with,
or on, any other hard metal.

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Twist Drills

• While the range of tools, designed to create holes in

metals and other materials is vast, the Morse-type
(named after its inventor, an American engineer) of
Twist Drill is the one most commonly used in aircraft
(and in general) engineering.

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Twist Drills

• The shank is the part of the twist drill that is gripped

and driven by the chuck of the drilling machine and it
is on the shank that the details of the material and
diameter of the drill can usually be found printed or
engraved.

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Twist Drills

• On drills up to 12.5 mm (½”) diameter, the shank is

parallel and placed into the jaws of a self-centering
chuck.
• On drills above 12.5 mm the shank is usually tapered
(to a Morse Taper) of 1:20. The tapered shank fits
directly into a matching tapered housing in the drilling
machine spindle.

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Twist Drills

• The tapered shank usually ends in a tang and this

arrangement provides a more positive drive, which is
necessary to overcome the higher forces when drilling
with the larger diameter drills.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 125

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Twist Drills

• The helical flute (or fluting), formed in the drill body,

provides a rake angle for the cutting edges of the drill.
• The fluting also allows any lubricant to flow towards
the cutting edges and provides a path for the waste
metal (‘swarf’), to move clear.

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Twist Drills

• The land of the drill actually touches the wall of the

hole and steadies the drill during rotation.
Immediately behind the land, metal is removed from
the body of the drill, to reduce the friction during
rotation.

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Twist Drills

• In order that the drill will

cut properly, the point
must be ground to the
correct shape
• The cutting angle of 59°
(118° inclusive), a
clearance angle of 12°
and a web angle of 130°,
are typical for normal
metal cutting.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 128
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Twist Drills

• Hand grinding/sharpening of drills can be achieved to

an acceptable standard for general work.
• For the high standard of hole, required to receive
rivets, it is common practice to discard drills, which
have become blunt and to replace them with new
drills.

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Twist Drills

• Drill Materials
 There are many different grades of metal, used in
the manufacture of twist drills, the most common
being:
 Carbon Steel
 High Speed Steel (HSS)
 High Speed Cobalt (HSCo)

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Twist Drills

• Drill Sizes
 Drill diameter sizes are also usually marked upon
the shank of the drill and can be identified by the
method used in their sizing.
 The most common methods of identifying the
diameter of twist drills are:
• Metric
• Fractions of an inch
• The Number/Letter range.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 131
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Twist Drills

• Drill Sizes
 Table shows the Number/Letter Range method of
sizing drills.
 This method utilizes numbers from 80 to 1 and
letters from A to Z.

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Twist Drills

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Twist Drills

• Drill Lubricants
 The use of a suitable lubricant when drilling is very
important, not only does the use of lubricant
improve the quality of the hole, but it also assists
in dissipating the heat produced by drilling.
 This improves the cutting efficiency and prolongs
the life of the drill.

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Twist Drills

• Drill Lubricants
 Table shows some of the recommended lubricants,
which may be employed when drilling metals.

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Twist Drills

• Drill Speed
 For a twist drill to cut efficiently it must rotate at
the correct speed, in a particular metal, for a given
diameter drill.
 Most hand drills are limited to one speed, which is
a compromise on the ideal speed for the material
and for the drill size.
 The speed of most static drilling machines can be
varied by means of a gearbox or variable drive
belt/pulley arrangement.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 136
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Twist Drills

• Centre Punching and Centre Drilling

 When drilling small holes, up to 6.0 mm (¼”)
diameter, the depth of the center punch mark will,
usually, accommodate the non-cutting,
chisel-like point of the drill, keeping it on
center and guiding the drill until it is
established in the metal.

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Twist Drills

• Centre Punching and Centre Drilling

 When a hole larger than 6.0 mm diameter is to be
drilled, it will be necessary to employ the use of a
pilot drill to provide a guide for the larger drill.

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Twist Drills

• Centre Punching and Centre Drilling

 Firstly, the centre of the hole is marked out on the
metal (i.e. using the Center Punch).
 A small drill (the pilot drill), whose diameter is
slightly larger than the non-cutting point of the
‘finished size’ drill, is selected and a pilot hole is
drilled in the metal.

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Twist Drills

• Centre Punching and Centre Drilling

 The pilot drill is replaced by the ‘finished size’ drill,
which can, then be guided through the pilot hole
to complete the hole to the appropriate size.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 140

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Twist Drills

• Centre Punching and Centre Drilling

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Press (Dimpling),
Countersinking Tools
• Press countersinking or ‘dimpling’ is done
where the aircraft skin is too thin to
countersink, and without the attendant risk of
enlarging the drilled hole.
• The edges of the hole are formed, to
accommodate the head of the rivet, by using a
set of dimpling dies, using either ‘coin or hot
dimpling’, or ‘radius dimpling’ methods.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 142
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Press (Dimpling),
Countersinking Tools
• Radius dimpling uses a male die to drive the
sheets into a female die.

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Press (Dimpling),
Countersinking Tools

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Press (Dimpling),
Countersinking Tools
• The sides of the formed holes are not as
smooth as the coin dimpling method, but this
less-precise operation is quicker and cheaper
to achieve.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 145

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Press (Dimpling),
Countersinking Tools
• With harder materials, such as magnesium and
certain aluminum alloys, a process called hot
or coin dimpling is used.
• This method involves pre-heating the metal,
and a coining die is used so that it forms more
easily and is less likely to crack when shaping
takes place.

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Reamers

• Reamers are precision-ground tools, which are

used to enlarge drilled holes to accurate
dimensions and provide a smooth internal
finish to accommodate precision-ground bolts
and some special types of rivets.
• Reamers are manufactured from high-carbon
steel or alloy steel and are fluted to provide a
series of cutting edges.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 147
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Reamers

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Reamers

• They are available, either for use by hand, or

for using with a suitable drilling machine.
• Machine reamers can usually be identified by
the Morse tapered shank, which is inserted
directly into the spindle of a drilling machine.

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Reamers

• Hand reamers are rotated, by means of the

hand wrench, which locates on the squared
portion of the shank.

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Reamers

• They must always be rotated only in the cutting

direction, even when withdrawing from a hole.
• The cutting lubricants, used on specific
materials, are those which are used for drilling
procedures.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 151

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Reamers

• Reamers are used for removing only small

amounts of material, which, typically, for hand
reamers, is approximately 0.2 mm-0.3 mm
(0.008 in-0.012 in), so holes should be drilled
with this fact in mind.

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Reamers

• Reamers are supplied in protective sleeves, to

protect the fine, vulnerable cutting edges,
which run along the body of the tool and, to
preserve the sharp edges, they should be kept
in their sleeves when not in use.

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Internal Screw Thread
Cutting Taps
• Taps are used for the hand cutting of internal
(female) screw threads.

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Internal Screw Thread
Cutting Taps
• Taps are normally made in sets of three, with
the exception of the BA thread tap sets, which
have only two taps to a set.
• Taps are supplied in sets of three except for
B.A. sizes where the second tap is omitted.

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Internal Screw Thread
Cutting Taps

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 156

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Internal Screw Thread
Cutting Taps
• The Taper Tap is used to start the thread
cutting process.
• It is tapered gradually from the point for about
two thirds of the threaded length, so that it
can enter the pre-drilled hole easily and assist
in the correct alignment of the tap (which is
very important) before cutting commences.
• The last third of its length has fully formed
threads. UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 157
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Internal Screw Thread
Cutting Taps

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Internal Screw Thread
Cutting Taps
• The Second (or Intermediate) Tap is used,
following the taper tap, to deepen the thread.
• This tap is tapered for the first two or three
threads only and, where it is possible for the tap
to pass the whole length through a hole, it is
capable of cutting a fully formed thread.
• The Intermediate is the tap that is not available in
BA thread tapping sets.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 159
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Internal Screw Thread
Cutting Taps

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Internal Screw Thread
Cutting Taps
• The Plug (or Bottoming) Tap has no taper and
its purpose is to finish the threads in deep,
through holes or to cut threads to the bottom
of ‘blind’ holes.

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Internal Screw Thread
Cutting Taps

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External Screw Thread
Cutting Dies
• Dies are used for the hand cutting of external
(male) threads on round rods or bars of
comparatively small diameters.

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External Screw Thread
Cutting Dies
• There are two types of die:
• Circular
• Rectangular

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External Screw Thread
Cutting Dies
Circular
• This type is generally used for cutting threads
of a smaller size.
• Slight adjustment can be effected by the screws
in the side of the stock.
• The die thread is tapered to allow an easier
start to be made.
• When fitting the die to the stock, the tapered
side must always be away from the shoulder of
the stock.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 165
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External Screw Thread
Cutting Dies
Circular

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 166

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External Screw Thread
Cutting Dies
Rectangular
• This is a two piece die which is adjustable and is
used for cutting Larger diameter threads.
• Two or three cuts may be required to cut the
full thread, the die being closed up after each
cut.
• The die has tapered threads to allow easier
starting. The engraved numbers on the two
halves must be fitted on the same side.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 167
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External Screw Thread
Cutting Dies
Rectangular

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Screwdrivers

• Screwdriver tips are available in a wide variety

of types and sizes.
• The two most common screwdriver tips are:
• the simple 'blade'-type for slotted screws; and
• the "cross-recess", "cross-head", or "cross-point".

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Screwdrivers

Blade Screwdrivers
• The tool used to drive a slotted screw head is called
a standard, common, blade, flat-blade, slot-head,
straight, flat or flat-tip screwdriver.

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Screwdrivers

Blade Screwdrivers
• The correct engagement of the screwdriver blade in
the slotted head of the screw or bolt is most
important.
• The end of the blade should never be ground to a
sharp chisel edge and a blade of the correct
thickness and width should always be chosen.

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Screwdrivers

• Blade Screwdrivers
• The most common faults can be seen in the
illustration.

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Screwdrivers

• Cross-Point Screwdrivers
• The two common types of cross-point
screwdrivers used in aviation maintenance are
the:
• Phillips; and
• Reed and Prince (or Frearson).
• These types look similar.

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Screwdrivers

• Phillips
• The driver has a 57° point and tapered, un-
sharp (rounded) flutes.

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Screwdrivers

• Phillips
• The angled tip means you can fit a screwdriver
deeper into the screw head and there’s no risk
of the blade sliding out sideways.
• These drivers are intentionally designed to cam
out (i.e. slip out of the head when a certain
torque limit is exceeded), which is considered
both a strength and weakness.

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Screwdrivers

• Reed & Prince (Frearson)

• This variation of cruciform is very similar to a
Phillips at first glance, but has some important
distinctions.

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Screwdrivers

• Reed & Prince (Frearson)

• The tip of a Reed & Prince comes to a sharp
point, whereas the Phillips has a rounded point.
• Additionally, the angle of the tip is closer to a
45 degree angle than on a Phillips. This makes it
possible to use a single Reed and Prince
screwdriver on any size Reed and Prince screw.

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Screwdrivers

• Reed & Prince (Frearson)

• The unique shape of a Reed & Prince
screwdriver allows for higher torque than a
Phillips, and the ability to carry just one drive
makes it very popular for aeronautical
equipment and in other areas where precision
and a smaller set of tools are required.

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Screwdrivers

• Torq-Set®
• Torq-set® is a cruciform screw drive used in
torque-sensitive applications.
• The Torq-set® head is similar in appearance to a
Phillips drive in that it has a cross with 4 arms.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 179

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Screwdrivers

• Torq-Set®
• In Torq-set® however, the lines are offset from
each other, so they do not align to form
intersecting slots across the top of the head.
• Because of this, a regular Phillips or flat-blade
screwdriver will not fit the head. It is used in
military and aerospace applications.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 180

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Screwdrivers

• Mortorq®
• The Mortorq® drive is designed to be a
lightweight, low-profile and high-strength drive,
with full contact over the entire recess wing,
reducing risk of stripping.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 181

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Screwdrivers

• Pozidriv nd Supadriv
• Pozidriv and the related Supadriv are widely
used in Europe and most of the Far East.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 182

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Screwdrivers

• Pozidriv/Supadriv
• While Pozidriv screws have cross heads like Phillips
and are sometimes thought effectively the same,
the Pozidriv design allows higher torque
application than Phillips.
• It is often claimed that they can apply more torque
than any of the other commonly used cross-head
screwdriver systems, due to a complex fluting
(mating) configuration.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 183
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Screwdrivers

• Japanese Industrial Standard

• Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) cross-head
screwdrivers are still another standard, often
inaccurately called Japanese Phillips.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 184

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Screwdrivers

• Japanese Industrial Standard

• Compatible screw heads are usually identifiable
by a single depressed dot or an "X" to one side
of the cross slot.
• This is a screw standard throughout the Asia
market and Japanese imports.
• The driver has a 57° point with a flat tip

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 185

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Screwdrivers

• Tri-Wing
• Vaguely resembling a pinwheel, the screw
heads have a triangular socket with three
straight “wing” extensions following each edge
in a clockwise direction.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 186

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Screwdrivers

• Tri-Wing
• They were originally developed for aerospace
engineering but are now most commonly found
in home electronics.
• A variation of the screw uses left-handed
threads, although the same driver may be used
for either thread direction.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 187

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Screwdrivers

• Screw Bits and Bit Holder

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 188

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Pliers

• Diagonal Cutting Pliers

• Also known as: flush cut
pliers, side-cutting pliers,
wire cutters.
• The jaws of these pliers
have an angled edge
designed to cut through
thick wire.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 189

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Pliers

• Round-Nosed Pliers
• Are useful for putting
small radius bends into
wire in addition to a
variety of other tasks.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 190

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Pliers

• Flat-Nosed Pliers
• Also known as: Duck
Bill pliers
• The flat, tapered jaws
of these pliers are
used for gripping and
twisting metal, as well
as twisting leads and
wires.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 191
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Pliers

• Needle-Nosed Pliers
• which have finely pointed jaws
and can be used in electrical and
electronic work, that involves
holding small components and
thin wires.
• Needle-nosed pliers may,
sometimes, have the jaws turned
at right angles to the handles.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 192

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Pliers

• Circlip Pliers
 Which may be found in two basic forms
(Internal and External).
 Both types have pins on the ends of the jaws,
which are used to install and remove circlips
from around (and from within) components.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 193

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Pliers

• Circlip Pliers

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 194

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Pliers

• Circlip Pliers
 The mechanisms are designed so that,
squeezing the handles together, either results
in the jaw pins coming together, (Internal), or
spreading apart (External).

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 195

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Pliers

• Circlip Pliers

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 196

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Pliers

• Wire-Locking Pliers
 Used for the specific
task of gripping wire
during the wire-locking
of components.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 197

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Pliers

• Wire-Locking Pliers:
 Due to their integral
Archimedes’ screw,
they are also able to
spin and so twist two
wires, so that a neat
and tight wire-locking is
obtained.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 198

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Pliers

• There are other groups of gripping tools that could,

loosely be called pliers, but they usually go under
the names of grips or clamps.
• These include:
 ‘Mole’-type Grips: which can be locked, holding
a component, freeing up the operator’s hand
for other work.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 199

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Pliers

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 200

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Pliers

 Slip-Joint (or Water Pump, or Swan-neck) Pliers

that can have several, different gripping ranges,
due to their multi-pivot mechanisms.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 201

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• The commonest spanners are those which are used on
the standard hexagonal heads of bolts, nuts, screws and
similarly shaped fastening devices.
• Most spanners are manufactured from case-hardened
mild steel, hardened and tempered high-carbon steel or
alloy-steel.
• The size of a spanner, is either marked on the jaw face,
or on the shank, in the units of the type of thread
system being used on the fastening device.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 202
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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Wrench Types
 Open-End Wrenches
• Open-end wrenches have an
opening in each end that fits
a bolt head or nut.
• The open end are normally
angled at 15 degrees to the
handle.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 203

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Wrench Types
 Open-End Wrenches
• This angle allows the turning
of a nut even when the
space for the handle is
severely restricted.
• However, there are many
other angles available, for
example, at 30/60 degrees.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 204

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Wrench Types
 Box-End Wrenches (Ring Spanner)
• Nuts that are exceptionally tight can spread the jaws
on even the best open-end wrench.
• To break the torque on tight nuts a box-end wrench
is used.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 205

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Wrench Types
–Box-End Wrenches (Ring Spanner)
• Box end wrenches have a six- or twelve-point
opening attached to each end and offset from the
axis of the handle by about 15 degrees.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 206

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Wrench Types
• Combination Wrenches
• The combination wrench has the advantage of both
a box-end and an open-end wrench.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 207

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Wrench Types
• Flare Nut Wrenches
• A slot is cut into the box end to allow the wrench to
slip over a fluid line and then the hex of the nut is
engaged.

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Wrench Types
 Ratcheting Box-End Wrenches
• Another type of ratcheting wrench is the ratcheting
box-end. This type of wrench consists of a box-end
wrench set into a handle with a ratcheting mecha-
nism.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 209

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Socket wrench
 Socket wrenches are
use for turning sockets
to tighten or loosen
readily because of the
Ratchet and reversing
functions.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 210

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Sockets
 Sockets are tools that typically have a square hole
in one end for a drive handle, and another end
with a six- or twelve-point opening designed to fit
different sized nuts.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 211

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Sockets
 Sockets are available in both standard and metric
sizes and can be used with a wide variety of
handles and extensions.
 Socket sets are available in a wide variety of drive
sizes. However, in aviation maintenance the 1/4
inch square drive and the 3/8 inch square drive are
the most popular.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 212

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Deep Sockets
 There are several
applications where a
bolt thread extends
through a nut too far for
a standard socket to grip
the nut.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 213

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Deep Sockets

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 214

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Flex Sockets
 Flex sockets have a pivot
point between the drive
handle end of the socket
and the nut end.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 215

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Crowfoot Sockets
 The crowfoot socket is designed to reach
fasteners placed in locations on aircraft where
neither a box-end, nor open-end wrench, or
standard socket wrench can be used.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 216

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Speed brace
• One tool that can save a great deal of time is
the speed brace.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 217

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Spanners, Sockets and
Wrenches
• Impact Driver
 Hand-held impact
drivers typically break
loose most stubborn
fasteners.
 They may be available
as manual or an air-
driven impact tool.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 218

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Torque Wrenches

• A Torque Wrench is a precision tool that governs

the amount of force applied to a fastener and
allows accurate torque values to be applied
consistently.
• The amount of torque is the product of the
turning force multiplied by the distance between
the centre of the fastener and the point at which
the force is applied (usually the length of the
wrench handle).

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 219

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Torque Wrenches
• Various Units of Torque
 Table shows various units of torque, including
Imperial, Metric and SI values.
IMPERIAL METRIC SI
pound force foot (lbf.-ft.) kilogram force metre (chg.) metre (Nm)
pound force inch (lbf.-in) kilogram force centimetre (kgf.cm) centi-Newton metre (cNm)

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 220

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Torque Wrenches

• There are three basic types of torque wrench.

They are the:
 Deflecting Beam
 Torsion Bar
 Toggle Type

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 221

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Torque Wrenches

• The Deflecting Beam

torque wrench,
 Has a square drive, on one
end of an accurately-
ground beam, with a
handle, mounted on a
pivot, at the other end.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 222

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Torque Wrenches

• The Torsion Bar (Dial-type)

Torque Wrench
 Uses the principle that a
bar accurately deflects in
torsion, as well as bending,
when a force is applied.
 The square drive is
accurately ground and has
a rack gear on one end.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 223
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Torque Wrenches

• The Toggle (Click-type) Torque Wrench

 Is pre-set to the desired torque before it is put on
a fastener.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 224

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Torque Wrenches

• The Toggle type of torque wrench

 When this pre-set torque is reached, a click is felt
and the handle releases a few degrees, indicating
that the set torque value has been exerted.
 Once this release occurs, then all force is removed.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 225

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Torque Wrenches
• Extensions
 Figure shows a Torsion Bar torque wrench
which has an extension spanner attached.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 226

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Torque Wrenches
• Extensions
 Figure shows a Toggle type torque wrench
which has an extension spanner attached.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 227

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Torque Wrenches

• Extensions
 If this combination is used to torque load a fastener
then the following formula should be used to
calculate the wrench scale reading which
corresponds to the specified torque value:
L
• Scale Reading (TW) = Specified Torque (TA) 
L A
Where:
L = distance between the driving tang and the centre of the
handle
A = length of extension spanner between centres

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 228

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Torque Wrenches

• Extensions

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 229

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Common Powered Tools

• Powered tools have to be treated with respect

because they can injure, and in exceptional
cases, can cause death if they are incorrectly
operated.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 230

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Common Powered Tools

• Before using any powered machine/tool,

personnel must make sure that:
 They have been properly trained and are currently
authorized to use it
 All protective guards and fences are securely in
place
 No part of the body or clothing can come into
contact with moving parts

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 231

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Common Powered Tools

• Before using any powered machine/tool,

personnel must make sure that:
 Protective clothing is fastened and neck ties (if
worn) tucked in or removed.
 All rings and other jewelry are removed.
 Safety glasses/goggles are worn wherever there is
a debris risk.

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Common Powered Tools

• Before using any powered machine/tool,

personnel must make sure that:
 Where necessary, the appropriate fire extinguisher
is readily to hand.
 A safety mat is available to stand on where
electrical machinery is used
 Machinery is checked for any “Warning” notices
indicating it is unsafe for use.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 233

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Common Powered Tools

• Electrically Powered
Pillar Drills
 Electrically powered,
Pillar Drills, are used for
heavy-duty drilling tasks,
where larger drill sizes
and rigid holding-down of
the work piece are
required.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 234

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Common Powered Tools

• Electrically Powered Hand

Drills
 These drills are useful in
certain locations when work
cannot be taken to a fixed,
pillar drill.
 Battery powered (cordless),
drills offer more freedom
than ac powered or
pneumatically powered drills.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 235
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Common Powered Tools

• Pneumatically
Powered Hand Drills
 Three typical types of
pneumatic hand drills,
in common use, are
the:
• Straight Drills
• Angled Drills
• Pistol Grip Drills.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 236
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Common Powered Tools

• Pneumatically Powered Hand Drills

 All drills may be found with built-in filters, pre-set
compressed air pressure-reducing devices and a
requirement for lubrication.
 The air supply is normally via a quick release, male
and female coupling (bayonet type), allowing the
tool to be moved from place to place, as the work
requires.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 237

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Abrasive Wheels

• Types
 There are two main material types for grinding
wheels:
 Aluminum Oxide
 Silicon Carbide

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 238

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Abrasive Wheels

• Construction
 The function of abrasives is to remove material.
 The wheel is made up of two components, the
abrasive and the bond.
 The abrasive acts like the cutter and the bond is
the glue holding the abrasive grains together.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 239

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Abrasive Wheels

• Safety
 There are several safety issues that a machinist
needs to be concerned with when dealing with
grinding wheels.
 Mainly, grinding wheels can crack. Most machines
have safety guards to deal with this problem, but
keep in mind that a shattered wheel can injure the
machinist as well as the people working nearby.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 240

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Precision Measuring Instruments are provided
to measure dimensions to a greater accuracy
than can be obtained by the use of a simple
engineer’s rule.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 241

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
 The principle of the micrometer is based on the
lead of the screw thread.
 This is the distance the thread moves, either
forwards or backwards, during one complete
revolution of the thimble.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 242

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
 An External Micrometer is used for measuring
(or testing the level-of-accuracy of) the external
sizes of objects.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 243

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
 The working tip of the spindle has an accurately
machined face, the object to be measured is
placed between the faces of the anvil and the
spindle.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 244

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
 The ratchet stop is used to rotate the thimble to
ensure that the reading is constant when taken by
different users of the instrument.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 245

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
 The standard (or common) external micrometer
consists of an appropriately shaped frame, to one
end of which is attached an internally threaded
barrel (or sleeve).

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 246

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
 A partially, externally threaded spindle, located in
a hollow, tubular thimble, is able to be screwed
into (or out of) the sleeve by means of rotating the
thimble.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 247

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
 The circumference of the thimble and the length
of the sleeve (or barrel) are graduated to indicate
the measurement of the object that is in contact
with the faces of the anvil and the spindle.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 248

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
 The sleeve also has a datum (fiducial) line, against
which the measurements are made, from the
beveled end of the thimble as it uncovers the
markings on the fiducial line.
 The locking ring (some micrometers have a locking
lever) is used to lock the spindle.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 249

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
 The mechanism of the external micrometer is
arranged so that the spindle face can only move
between 0 - 25 mm (or 0 – 1 in) from the anvil face
and, thus, the standard micrometer has the
capability to measure items which are in this
range.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 250

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
Sleeve (Metric)
• The sleeve scale of a metric micrometer has a
measuring range of 25mm.
• It is graduated in millimetres and half
millimetres.
• The scale is numbered every 5mm.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 251

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
Sleeve (Metric)

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 252

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
Thimble (Metric)
• The thimble scale has a measuring range of
0.5mm (the smallest value that can be
measured on the sleeve scale).
• It is divided into 50 increments, with each
increment representing 0.01mm (0.5 ÷ 50 =
0.01).
• The scale is numbered every 0.05mm.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 253
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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
• Thimble (Metric)

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 254

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Reading a Metric Micrometer

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 255

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
Vernier (Metric)
 Some micrometers also have a vernier scale on
the sleeve, which provides the user with
readings of even greater accuracy (to
0.001mm).
 The vernier scale has a range of 0.01mm and is
graduated in 10 increments, each of which
represents 0.001mm.
 The scale is numbered every 0.002mm.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 256
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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
• Vernier (Metric)

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 257

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 258

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
Sleeve (Imperial)
 The sleeve scale of an imperial micrometer has
a measuring range of 1 inch.
 It is divided into increments of 0.025 inches and
is numbered every 0.1 inches.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 259

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
Sleeve (Imperial)

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 260

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
Thimble (Imperial)
 The thimble scale has a measuring range of
0.025 inches (the smallest value that can be
measured on the sleeve scale).
 It is divided into 25 numbered increments, with
each increment representing 0.001 inches
(0.025 ÷ 25= 0.001).

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
• Thimble (Imperial)

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 262

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Reading an English Micrometer

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 263

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
Vernier (Imperial)
 Some micrometers also have a vernier scale on
the sleeve, which provides the user with
readings of even greater accuracy (up to 0.0001
inches).
 The vernier scale has a range of 0.001 inches
and is graduated in 10 numbered increments,
each of which represents 0.0001 inches.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 264
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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• External Micrometers
• Vernier (Imperial)

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 265

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Internal Micrometers
 Three-Point Internal Micrometers are used for
accurately measuring bores.
 The self-centering measuring head consists of 3
laterally positioned carbide anvils offset at 120°
intervals.
 Their design allows these micrometers to measure
close to the bottom of a blind bore.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 266

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Internal Micrometers

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 267

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Internal Micrometers
 Tubular Internal Micrometers are more commonly
referred-to are the ‘Stick’ micrometer.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 268

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Precision Measuring
Instruments

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 269

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Micrometer Depth Gauge
 Whilst only used in specialist applications, a
micrometer depth gauge is useful when the depth
of a groove or recess needs to be measured with
precision.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 270

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Vernier Calipers
 A Vernier Caliper is a versatile precision
instrument, used to measure both inside and
outside dimensions.
 In many situations, a Vernier Caliper is faster to
use than a Micrometer.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 271

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Vernier Calipers
 Calipers, furthermore, have a working range of up
to 150 mm (6 in) as opposed to the micrometer’s
more limited movement.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 272

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Vernier Calipers

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 273

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Vernier Calipers
Main Scale (Metric)
 Metric vernier calipers have a main scale
graduated in millimetres (mm).

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 274

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Vernier Calipers
Vernier Scale (Metric)
 The vernier scales of all metric calipers have a
measuring range of 1mm (the smallest distance
that can be measured using the main scale).
 Metric vernier calipers have different resolutions.
Some can measure to 0.05mm, whereas other can
measure to 0.02mm.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 275

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Vernier Calipers
Vernier Scale (Metric)

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Vernier Calipers
Main Scale (Imperial-Decimal)
 Imperial vernier calipers have a main scale
graduated in inches and tenths of inches.
 Each tenth of an inch is further subdivided into
four increments, each of which is 0.025 inches
long.

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Vernier Calipers
Main Scale (Imperial-Decimal)

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Vernier Calipers
Vernier Scale (Imperial-Decimal)
 The vernier scale of an imperial caliper has a
measuring range of 0.025 inches, and is graduated
in 25 increments.
 Therefore, each increment is equal to 0.001 inches
(0.025 ÷ 25 = 0.001).
 This is the resolution of the caliper.

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Vernier Calipers
Vernier Scale (Imperial-Decimal)

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 280

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Precision Measuring
Instruments
• Vernier Calipers
• Reading Imperial Vernier Calipers

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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools
• Gauge Blocks (or Slip Gauges)
 Gauge Blocks (also known as Slip Gauges), are,
simply, precision-ground blocks of metal that are
used either alone, or in combination with other
blocks, to give extremely accurate measurements.
 The blocks are made from high-carbon steel or
cemented carbide and are hardened, ground and
lapped.

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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools
• Gauge Blocks (or Slip Gauges)

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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools
• Dial Test Indicator (DTI)
 The Dial Test Indicator, or DTI, consists of a small
dial, to the circumference of which, is connected a
spring-loaded plunger.
 When the plunger is placed on a surface and
moved over that surface (or the surface moved
beneath the plunger), any variations in the surface
condition will be indicated on the dial of the
gauge.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 284
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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools
• Dial Test Indicator (DTI)
 An important feature of the gauge
dial is that the dial can be rotated
by a ring bezel, enabling it to be
readily set to zero.
 The gauge can thus be used as a
comparator, or as an instrument
for comparative measurements, as
well as for direct measurements.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 285
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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools
• Dial Test Indicator (DTI)

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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools
• Feeler Gauges
 Feeler Gauges have a wide application and consist
of a series of thin, flexible, steel blades in varying
thicknesses (normally from 0.04 mm to 1.00 mm
or from 0.0015 in to 0.015 in).
 The blades are secured in a protective, metal
scabbard, by a pin.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 287

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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 288

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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools
• Feeler Gauges
 Sometimes there will only be a need to use a
single blade whilst, at other times, a combination
of blades may be required to achieve the given
dimension.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 289

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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools
• Screw Pitch and Radius Gauges
 These gauges are used to check the profiles of
threads and radii, by comparison with sets of
blades held in a case much like feeler gauges.
 The thread gauges are available in all thread types
and the radius gauges have both an internal and
external radius.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 290

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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools
• Screw Pitch and Radius Gauges

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 291

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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools
• Screw Pitch and Radius Gauges

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 292

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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools
• Go/No-Go Gauges
 Where a single dimension has to be repeatedly
measured, a comparator-type of gauge is used
which checks, simply, whether a component is
within a pair of dimensions, usually referred to as
maximum and minimum dimensions.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 293

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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools

• Go/No-Go Gauges
 These gauges are referred to as ‘GO/NO-GO’
gauges and, providing the item being checked
passes through one jaw of the gauge, (the ‘GO’
dimension), and fails to pass through the other
jaw, (the ‘NO-GO’ dimension), it is considered to
be satisfactory.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 294

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Miscellaneous
Measuring Tools

• Go/No-Go Gauges

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Lubrication Equipment
and Methods
• Lubrication Methods
 Grease is the preferred lubricant, in certain
circumstances, for the following reasons:
 Where conditions are dirty, dusty or wet,
grease will provide a sealing medium, which
will tend to prevent the entry of foreign matter
into moving parts.
 Grease will stay in vertical bearings, whereas oil
will drain away.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 296
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Lubrication Equipment
and Methods
• Lubrication Methods

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 297

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Lubrication Equipment
and Methods
• Lubrication Methods
 Grease is the preferred lubricant, in certain
circumstances, for the following reasons:
 Grease, packed into a bearing or housing, will
provide sufficient lubrication for prolonged
periods of time
 Grease lubrication systems use much cheaper
fittings, and less complicated designs than
those required for oil systems.
UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 298
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Lubrication Equipment
and Methods
• Lubrication Methods
 Oils in a similar manner to greases, have
specialized purposes which include:
 Normal Lubrication
 High Pressure (Gearboxes)
 Extreme High Pressure (Hydraulics)
 Preservation and Inhibiting of components or
systems.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 299

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Lubrication Equipment
and Methods

Grease Guns

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 300

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Lubrication Equipment
and Methods
• Grease Guns
 All guns must be clearly marked with their
contents and, most importantly, a check must be
made to ensure that the gun is refilled with the
same grease or oil as stated on its label.

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 301

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Lubrication Equipment
and Methods
• Universal Grease gun

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 302

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Lubrication Equipment
and Methods
• Universal Grease gun

UNCONTROLLED COPY. FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY. Pg. 303

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The End

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