BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators (Outline)

Ø DC versus AC Current Gains

Ø AC Equivalent Circuit of the BJT
Ø Common-Emitter (CE) Amplifier
v Input and output Resistances
v Voltage, Current, and Power Gains
v Stability of the Voltage Gain
Ø Feedback Oscillators
v Colpitts Oscillator
v Hartley Oscillator
v Armstrong Oscillator
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 1
 you pick a Q-point
you pickona Q-point
the curveonand
thecause
curvetheandbase
causecurrent to vary
the base to vary ¢
an amount
current a
collector current willcurrent
collector vary anwill
amount
vary an ¢ICamount
as shown ¢ICinaspart (b). in
shown Atpart
different
(b). Atp
nonlinear curve, the ratio
nonlinear curve, C >¢I
¢Ithe B will
ratio ¢ICbe>¢I
different,
B will beand it may also
different, and itdiffer
may fro
als
ratioDC
ratio at the Q-point. versus
Since
at the Q-point. =AC
b DC SinceIC >ICurrent
and=bIacC >I=Gains
bBDC ¢IC >¢I
B and b acB=, the C >¢IB,of
¢Ivalues thes
the va
tities can differ
titiesslightly.
can differ slightly.
• The DC and AC current gains (βDC and βac) can be defined as follows:
βDC βac
IC IC IC IC ! F I G U R E 6!– 7F I G U R E
IC-versus-IB curve illustrB
IC-versus-I
Q Q
ICQ ICQ ! IC ! ICQ (IB, IC ) Q ference
(IB, IC ) between
ference
B DCbet!
B ac ! ¢IC /B ¢IacB.! ¢I

IB IB IB IB
0 0IBQ IBQ 0 0 !I
B ! IB
I C βDC = IC /IB(a)atβIQ-point
(a) (b) βac = ! IC /!
DC = IC /IB at Q-point ΔIICBβac = ! IC /! IB I c( pp)
(b)
CQ
βDC = = β ac = =
IB at the Q-point
IBQ ΔI B around the Q-point
I b( pp)
= slope of the line from the origin to = slope of the tangential line to the curve
hthe
Parameters h Parameters
Q - point. at the Q-point.
A manufacturer’s
© Dr. Ezzeldin datasheet typically
Soliman A manufacturer’s datasheet
PHYS-2211: specifies
typically
BJT Amplifiers h (hybrid)
and Oscillatorsparameters
specifies (h2i, h r, h f,
h (hybrid) paramete
cause they are relatively
cause they areeasy to measure.
relatively easy to measure.
 r-parameter transistor model.

AC Equivalent Circuit of the BJT

" FIGURE 6–6 C
• For AC signals, the BJT can be modeled
as a dependent current source. Relation of transistor symbol to
Vcbmodel.
r-parameter β ac Ib
• The large current flowing through this
source is always βacIb. Vce ≅ Vcb B B

(very small)
Vbe = Ie r’e
• The voltage difference across it, Vcb, is Ie ≅ I c re′
specified according to the enclosing Vbe
circuit. This Vcb is relatively large. (very small)
E

• The total (DC + AC) voltage difference across the forward-biased BE junction should be always
very close to 0.7 V. Excluding the DC part, VBE = 0.7 V, the AC part (Vbe) should be very small
(very narrow) and it can be modeled using an extremely small resistance r’e.
assuming an abrupt junction between the n and p regions. It
• Through a detailed derivation, the resistance r’e can be approximated at 20oC as follows:
25 mV and is based on an ambient temperature of 20°C.
reʹ ≅ , where IE is the DC emitter current.
IE 25 mV
Equation 6–1 r œe !
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators IE 3
 Common-Emitter (CE) Amplifier (1/2)
• The circuit below represents a typical common-emitter (CE) amplifier.
• The input signal Vin is coupled to the base through C1, the collector voltage is coupled to the
output
284 ◆ Vout
BJTthrough
A MPLIFIERSC3, and the emitter is coupled to the common ground reference through C2.
• The coupling capacitors C1 and C3 keep the input and output ports free from DC. They also
isolate the DC biasing circuit from the AC source internal resistance and the load resistance. 279
T H E C O M M O N -E M I T T E R A M P L I F I E R ◆

• The EXAMPLE
by-pass capacitor
6–4 C2 absorb all the AC emitter current and prevents it from flowing through
Select a minimum value for the emitter bypass capacitor, C2, in Figure 6–16 if the
RE. amplifier must operate over a frequency range from 200 Hz to 10 kHz.
Vc

! FIGURE 6–16 8.20 VDC

VCC
+12
V
V
CC
+12 V
βDC = 150
RC βac = 160
Vb R C
R1 1.0 k!C 1.0 k!C 3 Vout
2.83 VDC R1 22 k!
3
Vout Vou t
C1 22 k! 0
C1
Vin Vin 1 µF
2N3904
0
1 µF 2.13 VDC
RL
R2
R2
6.8 k! RR
EE CC
2
2
6.8 k! 560! !
560 10 µ F

© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman

FIGURE 6–8
!
PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 4
A common-emitter amplifier.

Solution The X of the bypass capacitor, C , should be at least ten times less than R .
 dc operation, which must be considered, but keep6–4
EXAMPLE in mind that the C
EXAMPLE Select
6–4 a minimum value for the
Select a emitter
minimum
to bypass capacitor,
A dc voltage sourcefor
be 0 Æ. value theinternal
has an emittCr
nation refers to the ac operation. T HE C OMMON -E MITTER A MPLIFIER ◆ 279
amplifier must operateamplifier
over a frequency
must rangeofover
operate
age independent from 200
a frequen
the load Hz
(within
e output signal is 180° out of phase with the input signal. As the 2. The dc source is replaced by ground.
ect a minimum value for the emitter bypass capacitor, C 2, in Figure 6–16 if the appears as an ac short. This is why a
Common-Emitter (CE) Amplifier (2/2)
anges, it causes the ac base current to change, resulting in a change A dc voltage source
plifier must
from its operate over a frequency range from 200 Hz to 10 kHz. The achas an internal
equivalent resistance
circuit for theof
Q-point value. If
Select a minimum value the base current increases,
for the emitter bypassthe collector capacitor, C , in Figure 6–16 ifagethe independent
e its Q-point value, causing an increase
! FIGURE 6–16
in the voltage drop across ! FIGURE 6–162 Figureof6–10(a).
the loadNotice
(withinthat
limits);
both RnoC
amplifier must operate over a frequency range from 200
e voltage across RC means that the voltage at the collector decreases
Vc Hz to 10 kHz. VCC as an
appears ac short.
cause, in theThis is why
actual VaCCdcthey
circuit, source
are ci
• By applying the superposition theory, the +12
TheVacDC
ny change in input signal voltage results in an opposite change in overall circuit can be divided into and AC
equivalent parts:
circuit for the
+12common-em
V
, which is a phase inversion. VCC 8.20 VDC Figure 6–10(a). Notice that both RC and R1 have
Original Circuit
+12 V DC Circuit
! FIGURE 6–10
AC Circuit
cause, in the actual circuit, they are connected to
V
VCC CC AC equivalent
R
circuit for the ampli- C RC
VCC C3
+12 +12
V V fier+12 V
in Figure
R
6–8. 1
1.0 k! R1 1.0 k!
β FIGURE 6–10 V RC ac so
er in Figure 6 – 8, the dc bias values must first be determined. DC = 150 To do !
22 k! 22 k! ou t
RC C1 C1 1.0 k!
rcuit is developed by removing the Rcoupling Cand
3 βac = 160
bypass capacitors AC equivalent circuit for the ampli-
R1 1.0 k!
C
Vout
pen as far as the dc bias is concerned.
1.0 k! This also RC Cremoves the load fier VinFigure 6–8. RC
in Vin 2N3904 2N3904
22 k!R 1
3
VC
Vou3 t R1 RC
ce. The Cdc equivalent circuit
22 k! 1isRshown in Figure1.06–9.
k! out
0 22 k!
1.0 k! R1 R2 1.0 k!
1
ias circuit and Capplying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the base-emitter V
n
1
C1
Vin(6.81 µkÆ)(22
22 k!
2N3904 1 µ F
=
ou t
βDC = 150
+ R1 R R2
22 k! 6.8 k!

R1R2 F kÆ) 2N3904

2.13 VDC R2 E R2C2 REV
= = 5.19 kÆ RL 22 k! 6.8 k! s
+ R2 6.8 kÆ + 22 kÆ R 2 R 2
6.8 k! 560 ! 6.8 k! 560 !
RE
6.8 k! RE C2 6.8 k!
R2 R2 6.8 kÆ RE C 560 ! (a) Without an input signal voltage
b VCC = a 6.8 k! b 12 V
560 =
! 2.832 V 10 µ F (AC ground is shown in red.)
R1 + R2 6.8 kÆ + 22 R2 kÆ560 ! RE C2
VTH - VBE 2.83 V - 0.7 V k!
6.8 560 !
Two= 560 sources (DC Insource
ac analysis,
voltage the ac ground (b) and
With t
Æ and AC) are present in *! The * (a)The
Without an input signal
+ RTH* > b DC Æ + 34.6
= 3.58 mA F I G U R EDC 6 – 9 source is AC
(AC ground is shown
is kept
cally. The in red.)
amplifier in Figure 6–8 is c
r=amplifier.
3.58 mA the original circuit. SolutionDCkept The and
equivalent ofthe
XCcircuit the ACampli-
bypass
for the
Solution and
is capacitor, the
The XC ofCcapacitor
theDC
2, should
is
bypass shorted
be
C2 keeps at to ten
theleast
capacitor, emitter , tisg
Cat2ac
* ItmA)(560
RE = (3.58 is equivalent
Æ) = 2 V to the superposition of shorted to ground.
fier in Figure 6 – 8. In ac analysis, the ac ground and the actual g
ground.
Signal
cally. The amplifierRE(AC) Voltage
5606–8Æatis called
in Figure the Base a com R
ekenXfrom
C of two
the sub-circuits.
bypass capacitor, C 2 , should be at least
the collector terminal as the output, the emitter is common to both ten * C
times 1 , C
less 2 , and
than R C
E .3 are * C 1X, C = ,
input
2
capacitorC2C2 keeps
and
in =
Figure C
the emitter6–10(b).
3 are =If 56
XC2 =Gro
the
at ac ground. Æ
intern
* Only 10 10 at the base te1
on The
tput signals. C ofone
XThere isthe source
bypass
no signal isemitter
kept
capacitor,
at the
R Cin2560
because, each
should
the bypass
Æ
sub- considered
becapacitor
at least ten times less o.c. thaninRE. considered
Signal (AC)nal
s.c. appears
source voltage
Voltage at the
in this
s the emittercircuit,
to ground theat other Xone
the signal is
frequency.
=
E All amplifiers have a com-
replaced
= by a=s.c.
56 Æ this DC
Determine circuit.
the capacitance AC valuecircuit.
at resistance,
the minimumthenBase An ac volt
threefrequency
factors mus
C2
ac and dc operation, which must be considered, 10 but keep R Æ the
560that
10E in mind Determine
input in the
Figure capacitance
6–10(b). If the value
internal
nal voltage at the base. These are th
at
resistan th
© Dr.refers
r designation Ezzeldin
to the acSoliman
operation. XC2 = =PHYS-2211: = 56 BJT Æ Amplifiers and Oscillators source voltage appears at the base terminal.
5 at the If, bh
10 frequency10 1 and the ac inputresist
1 be taken= i 1 ance
termine the capacitance value at the minimum
on The output signal is 180° out of phase with the input signal. As the
of 200 Hz as follows:
C 2 = nal resistance,
= then6–11(a)
Figure three factors
C =
and ismust
simplified =by
2pf XC2total 2p(200 2 Hz)(56 Æ)
Determine
age changes, it causesthe
thecapacitance
ac base currentvalue at the
to change, minimum
resulting
nal
frequency of 200 Hz as follows:
in a change
voltage at theinput These 2pfRin(t
base.resistance,
are theXot
source re
), whic
C2
 Input Resistances of the CE Amplifier
Rin(tot ) Rin(base )

RC RL Rin(tot )
Rin(tot )

Generator

Vb RC RL
Rin( base) =
Ib Rin(base ) Ic
Ib
I rʹ
= ee Rin(tot ) = R1 R2 Rin( base )
I c β ac

Rin(tot)
I rʹ ⎛ Rin(tot ) ⎞
≅ ee Ie = I b + Ic Vb = ⎜⎜ ⎟ Vs
⎟
I e β ac ⎝ R s + R in ( tot ) ⎠
Rin( base) = β ac reʹ

© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 6

 Output Resistance of the CE Amplifier
• The resistance seen at the output port of the CE amplifier can be calculated as follows:
Ø Vs is shorted
Ø No current flow in this block
Rout Ø Ib (control current) = 0
Ø Ic (dependent current) =
RL βac Ib = 0
Ø Collector current source is
replaced by an open-circuit.
Rout
I out
o.c.
Vout
Rout = Ib = 0
I out Vs →s.c.
I out RC
=
I out
Rout = RC
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 7
 Solved Problem
Problem (1): Find the signal voltage at the base of the transistor in the common-emitter
amplifier circuit discussed previously. The signal source has 10 mV rms and 300 Ω resistance.
DC Circuit AC Circuit
R2 Rin(tot ) Rin(base )
VTH = VCC
R1 + R 2
6.8 k
= 12 = 2.83 V RC RL
22 k + 6.8 k
R TH = R1 R 2 = 5.19 kΩ
R TH
VTH = I ERE +VBE + I BR TH β DC
IE VTH 150 reʹ ≅ 25 mV I E = 25 mV 3.58 mA = 6.98 Ω
≅ I ERE +VBE + R TH
Active β DC Rin( base) = β ac reʹ = 160 × 6.98 = 1.12 kΩ
VTH −VBE 1
IE ≅ Rin(tot ) = = 921 Ω
RE + (R TH β DC) (1 22 k) + (1 6.8 k) + (1 1.12 k)
2.83 − 0.7 ⎛ Rin(tot ) ⎞ ⎛ 921 ⎞
= = 3.58 mA Vb = ⎜ ⎟Vs = ⎜ ⎟10 m = 7.54 mV (rms)
560 + (5.19 k 150) R
⎝ s + R in(tot ) ⎠ ⎝ 921+ 300 ⎠
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 8
 Voltage Gain of the CE Amplifier
• The ideal voltage gain of an amplifier is defined in terms of voltages at the transistor’s terminals.
• The overall voltage gain is defined in terms of voltages at the terminals of the whole circuit.
Ideal Voltage Gain Overall Voltage Gain

RC RL
β ac I b

VL
Rin(tot ) RC RL

V VL Vc ⎛Vc ⎞ ⎛Vb ⎞ Av
Av ≡ ideal voltage gain = c Avʹ ≡ overall voltage gain = = =⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟= ,
Vb Vs Vs ⎝Vb ⎠ ⎝Vs ⎠ Attenuation
I (R R ) R R Vs R s + Rin(tot )
= c C L ≅ C L where: Attenuation = = ≥ 1 ⇒ Avʹ ≤ Av
I e reʹ reʹ Vb Rin(tot )
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 9
 284 ◆
284 ◆
Effect of the Bypass Capacitor
BJT A MPLIFIERS
BJT A MPLIFIERS T HE C OMMON -E MITTER A MPLIFIER ◆ 279 T HE C OMMON
284 ◆ BJT A MPLIFIERS
• If properly selected, the emitter bypass capacitor (C2) serves as a short circuit with respect to
REa. This
Select allows
minimum valuetheforemitter
EXAMPLE current
the emitter 6–4 tocapacitor,
bypass bypass R 2,. in Figure
CSelect 6–16 ifvalue
a minimum the for the emitter bypass capacitor, C2, in Fig
a 1frequency
E
Select amust
amplifier minimum
operatevalue
overfor EXAMPLE
the emitter
a frequency 6–4from
bypass
range capacitor, , cinkHz.
CSelect
200 Hzamplifier
to 210
V Figure
amust 6–16
minimum ifvalue
operate the
overfor the emitter bypass
range fromcapacitor,
200 Hz to , cinkF
C210
The
•Select selection
a minimum criterion
value for is: X
EXAMPLE
the emitter
amplifier must operate over a frequency <<
6–4 R
bypass ⇒ X
capacitor,
C (max) range from
E 200 Hz C , in
Select < 0.
Figure
C2amplifier
(max) a
to 10 kHz. 1R
6–16
minimum
must ⇒if the
value for the < 0 .
emitter
E operate over a frequency E 1Rbypass
V
range from 200 Hz2 toin10
capacitor, C , F
amplifier must operate over a frequency range from 200 Hzamplifier to 10 kHz. must operate2over
πfmina Cfrequency
2 range from 200 Hz to 10
8.20 VDC 8.20 VDC
! FIGURE 6–16
CE with Bypass Capacitor
VCC ! F I G U R E 6 – 1 6
+12 VV!CCF I G U R E 6 – 1 6
CC
CE without Bypass
V
V
+12 V
Capacitor
CC
CC
CC
V
+12
+12CCVV VCCV
+12
+12 V
+12 V βDC = 150 +12 V βDC = 150
R RC RC
RC C C3 βac = 160 Vb C3 βac = 160
R1 1.0 k! 1.0 R
k!C CC Vout R1 1.0 k! 1.0 R
k!C Vout
2.83VV
33 CC33
R22 R1
1 k! R
1.0
C k! Voutou
DCt R22 R1
1 k! R
1.0
C k! VV
C1 22 k!
C 3 C1 C 3
ou t
out
R
221 k! 1.0 k! Vou t 0 22 k!
R
221 k! 1.0 k! Vou t 0
Vin C1 C1 22 k! V Vin C1 C1 22 k! V
C1 2N3904 1 µ F Vouint 2N3904 1 µ F ou t
Vin C1
2N3904 0 Vin 2N3904
Vin 2N3904 Vin 2N3904
1 µF 2.13 VDC 1 µF 2.13 VDC
RL RL
RR2 RE RR2
2 C2 2 RE C2
6.8 k! 6.8 k!
R
6.8 k!
2 560R
R!EE C2
C R
6.8 k!
2 560R
R!EE C2
C
R6.8
2 k! 560
R E !
560 ! 102µ F R6.8
2 k! 560
R E !
560 ! 102µ F
C2 C2
6.8 k! 560 ! 6.8 k! 560 !

8 ! FIGURE 6–8
itter amplifier. Av = (RC RL ) reʹ re ⇒ ramplifier.
A common-emitter
ʹe + RE ʹ Av = (RC RL ) (reʹ + RE)
ion The XC of the bypass capacitor, C2, should be atSolution least ten timesThe Xless
C ofthan E.
the Rbypass capacitor, C2, should be at least ten times less
lution The XC of the bypass capacitor,
Hence, C
the effect
2 , should
of thebe at least
Solution
emitter ten times
The
bypass Xlessofthan
the
capacitor
C R .
bypass
E is tocapacitor,
increase CA 2, should
. be at least ten times l
ution The XC of the bypass capacitor, CR2E, should
560 be Æat least
Solutionten times
The less
X C ofthan
the R .
bypass
E capacitor, C R
2E, should
v 560 Æat least ten times le
be
X
taken from the collector terminal as the output,
C2 = the =
REthe input
emitter 560
is =
common
and 56
Æ taken Æ
to both X
from the collector terminal as the output,
C2 = the RE =
emitter 560
is Æ= 56toÆboth
common
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman 10
XC2 = RE = 560 10PHYS-2211:
Æ = 56 ÆBJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 10 10
XC2 = RE = 560 Æ = 56 10Æ
output signals. There is no signal at the emitter
XC2 =because =the
10the bypass
input capacitor
10and=output
56 Æsignals. There is no signal at the emitter
XC2 =because
10 =the bypass
10 =capacitor
56 Æ
orts theDetermine the capacitance
emitter to ground at the signalvalue at theAll
frequency. 10
minimum 10frequency
amplifiers
effectively have
shortsa com-of 200 to
theDetermine
emitter Hzground
as follows:
the capacitance
at the signalvalue at theAll
frequency. 10
minimum 10frequency
amplifiers of 200
have a com-
Determine the capacitance value at the minimum
oth ac and dc operation, which must be considered, but keep in mind that thefrequency of 200
Determine Hz as
the follows:
capacitance value at the minimum frequency of 2
 284 ◆ BJT A MPLIFIERS

Solved Problems (1/2)

EXAMPLE 6–4 Select a minimum value for the emitter bypass capacito
Problem (2): Calculate the base-to-collector voltage must
amplifier gain of the amplifier
operate circuit below
over a frequency bothfrom 20
range
without and with an emitter bypass capacitor, assuming that there is no load resistor. Repeat
the problem when a 5 kΩ resistor is connected to the output.
! FIGURE 6–16
From Problem (1) : reʹ = 6.98 Ω VCC
(1) RL = ∞ : +12 V

RC RL = RC ∞ = RC = 1 kΩ
RC
Av = RC (reʹ + RE ) C
without C2 R1 1.0 k! 3
= 1 k (6.98 + 560 ) = 1.76 22 k! Vou t
C1
Av = RC reʹ = 1 k 6.98 = 143.3
with C2 Vin 2N3904
( 2) RL = 5 kΩ :
RC RL = 1 k 5 k = 833 Ω
Av = (RC RL ) (reʹ + RE ) R2 RE C2
without C2
6.8 k! 560 !
= 833 (6.98 + 560 ) = 1.47
Av with C2
= (RC RL ) reʹ = 833 6.98 = 119.3
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 11
 284 ◆ BJT A MPLIFIERS

Solved Problems (2/2)

EXAMPLE 6–4 Select a minimum value for the emitter bypass capaci
Problem (3): Select a minimum value for the amplifier
emitter bypass
mustcapacitor C2 in athe
operate over amplifier range
frequency circuit from 2
below, knowing that the amplifier must operate over a frequency range from 200 Hz to 10 KHz.
Sketch the amplifier’s ideal gain versus frequency if the minimum C2 is used.
! FIGURE 6–16
1 VCC
X C(max) = < 0.1RE = 0.1× 560 = 56 Ω
2πfminC2 +12 V
1 1 1
2πfminC2 > ⇒ C2 > = = 14.2 µF
56 56 × 2πfmin 56 × 2π × 200 RC
C3
R1 1.0 k!
1 1 1 22 k! Vou t
> 0.1RE = 0.1RE < 0.1RE C1
2πf C2 2πf C2 2πf C2
Vin 2N3904
Av i to r is
c apac high
RC reʹ s m all C CEf is very
o f this ∞ when
XC g e r R2 RE C2
n
bad good no lo 6.8 k! 560 !
bypass bypass
fmin fmax f
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 12
 RC
Av =
r¿e + RE1
Voltage Gain Stability of the CE Amplifier (1/2)
• The ideal !voltage
FIGUREgain
6–18Av depends on r’e, +VCC
which depends on temperature.
A swamped amplifier uses a partially
bypassed emitter resistance to mini-
• This couldmize
make Av and RC
of r!econsequently
on the gain in A’v,
C3
the effect R1
unstable with temperature.
order to achieve gain stability.
Vou t
C1

• One way to maintain stability without reducing Vin

Av too much is to partially bypass RE.
RE1
• Doing so, the ideal voltage gain, Av, becomes: R2

RC RE2 C2
Av =
reʹ + RE1

RC RE1 ⎧ > 10 : stable

• If RE1 > 10r’e: Av ≅ ≠ f (reʹ) ⇒ S Av ≡ thermal stability factor of Av = ⎨
RE1 reʹ ⎩ < 10 : unstable

• The partial bypass is a compromise between maximum gain (complete bypass) and maximum
stability (no bypass).
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 13
 r¿e on the gainexternal
is greatly reduced
emitter or eliminated.
resistance, E
RE, is The
formedtotalwith two separate emitter resistors, e E1
RE1 and
RE, is formed , as two
RE2with indicated in emitter
separate Figure 6–18. OneRE1
resistors, of and
the resistors, RE2, isresistance,
external emitter bypassed Rand E, isthe otherwith two separate emitter resistors, RE1 an
formed
RE2, as indicated in Figure 6–18. One of theR resistors, R E2 , is bypassed and the other
6–18. One is the
of
EXAMPLE not.resistors,
6–4 RE2, is bypassedSelectanda the other
minimum E2, as for
value indicated
the in Figure
emitter bypass6–18. One of
capacitor, the, resistors, E2, isifbypassed
R6–16 and the oth
Select a minimum is not.
value for the emitter bypass capacitor,EXAMPLE
C , in 6–4
Figure 6–16 if the Select a C
minimum 2 in Figure
value for the thebypass
emitter capacitor
Both resistors (RE1 ! RE2)amplifier
affect themust
dc bias 2is not.only R affects the ac voltage gain.
while
EXAMPLE
operate over a6–4
frequency range from
Select 200
a Hz to
minimum 10 kHz.
value for the emitter bypass capaci
Voltage Gain Stability of theamplifier
CE must Amplifier (2/2)
Select amust
minimum E1
amplifier Bothvalue
operate for
resistors
over the
(RE1emitter
! RE2
aRfrequency bypass
) affect
range fromcapacitor,
the200
dc Hz
bias to
EXAMPLE
, inkHz.
Cwhile
10
2Both Figure
only R6–16
resistors
6–4 E1(R
if thetheamplifier
affects
! R ) ac voltage
affect
Selectthea
must
dc operate
gain.
bias
minimum while over
only
value
aRfrequency
for affects
the
range
the
emitter ac from 200
voltage
bypass gai
capaci
2 ) affect the dc bias while only affects the ac voltage gain.
Select a minimum value forE1the emitter bypass capacitor, C2, in Figure 6–16E1if theE2
amplifier must operate over a frequency range from 2 E1
amplifier must operate over a frequency range from 200RHzC to 10 kHz.
v =
amplifier mustRoperate over a frequency rangeAfrom 200 RCto 10 kHz.
Hz R operate over a frequency range from 2
=
A!v FIGURE
C
6–16
A =
r¿ + RE1
v e! FIGURE Av =
C
r¿ + R r¿
e + RE1 6–16 r¿ + R
e
No Bypass
E1 VCC
+12 VCC
V !
!
Partial Bypass
FIGURE 6–16
+12
FIGURE 6–16
CC
V Complete Bypass
e E1 VCC
+12 VCC
! FIGURE 6–18 +12 VCCV +VCC VCCV
+12
! FIGURE 6–18 +12 +VV CC ! FIGURE 6–18 +V CC +12 V CC
+V
A swamped amplifierRuses a partially
C uses a partially RC RC
tially A swamped amplifier C3 A swamped amplifier C3a partially
uses C3
bypassedR1emitter resistance
1.0 R C to mini-
k! R1 1.0 k! R1 1.0 Rk!
C
bypassedk! Cmini- RC to C3
mini- R1emitter
mize the22effect
resistance
R1.0
of r!e on the C Rk!toC
gain
3
inC3 3 Vou t bypassed
22 k! R emitter resistance RC
C3mini-
C Vou t R1
22 k! R1.0
C Rk!
CC
Vou t
in C1 mize theR22 effect of r!e on1.0theC
k!gain in Vou C mize the effect 3 C1 R221 k! C
1.0 k! 3 3
R1 of r!e on the gain in VouVt
1 Vou t
1 k!
R1gain t 1 R1
order
C to achieve
22 k!
stability. VV C1 order to achieve gain stability. C1 VVouou tt
Vin 1 ou t Vin ou t 22 k!
C1order
C1 to achieve gain stability. Vin
2N3904 ou t 2N3904
C1 2N3904 C1 C1
Vin 2N3904 Vin Vin 2N3904
Vin Vin 2N3904 Vin Vin Vin 2N3904
RE1
R2 RE RE1 C2 R2 RE RE1 R2 RE RE1
R2 C2 C2
6.8 R
k!2 R2 560R!E C2 6.8 Rk!
2 R2 560R!E
R6.8 R560 6.8 k! R2 560 ! C2
2 k! E ! C2 R6.8
2 k! R560
E ! C2
6.8 k! 560R!E2 RE2 C2
C2 RE2 C2 6.8 k! 560R!E2 C2

RC RC
Av = capacitor, C2, should be at least ten•times
The XC of the•bypass Av = less than RE.Solution The X of the bypassRcapacitor, C , should be at least ten
n The XC of the bypass reʹ +capacitor,
RE Solution The XbeC at
C2, should of least
the bypass
ten times reʹ less
+ RE1
capacitor,thanCR2,Eshould
.Solutionbe atThe
least Av bypass
C ten times less
XC of• the than RE.2 C , should be at least
= C capacitor,
The XC of the bypass capacitor, CR 2,Eshould560beÆat least ten times less than RE.Solution The XC of the bypass reʹ capacitor, CR22,Eshould 560beÆat least
Minimum VoltageXC2 = Gain R=E 560 = 56 ÆModerate VoltageRGain
Æ E 560 Æ X = R= 560 Æ= 56
XC2 10= RE = 10 560 Æ = 56 Æ XC2 = = = 56 ÆMaximum Voltage C2
X 10
Gain
=
E 10
RE 560 Æ =
=
R X C2 = 10 = 10 = 56 Æ R 10 10 C2
XC2 = 10 = 10 = 5
S Av = E value at the 10
Determine the•capacitance minimum 10frequency • S Aofv =200 E1Hz as follows: Determine the • Av of=200 f rHz
capacitance ʹ value() at the 10
minimum 10freque
reʹ
Determine the capacitance value at theDetermine
minimum frequency
the capacitance reʹ value
of 200 Hz asatfollows:
the minimum frequency
Determine thealways e as follows:
capacitance value at the minimum freq
Determine the capacitance1value at the minimum 1 frequency of 200 Hz as follows: Determine the capacitance 1value at the minimum1 freq
C2 = Stability
Maximum 1 = 1 =Moderate
14.2 MF Stability
1 1 AlwaysC Unstabe
= =
C2 2pf= XC2 1 2p(200
= 1 Æ)
Hz)(56 =C214.2= MF =
2
= 14.2 MF 2pf XC21 2p(200 1 Æ)
Hz)(56
C2 = 2pf XC2 = 2p(200 Hz)(56 Æ) = 14.2 2pf C 2 = 1 = 1
MF XC2 2p(200 Hz)(56 Æ) C2 = 2pf XC2 = 2p(200 Hz)(56 Æ
This is ©
theDr. Ezzeldin
minimum valueSoliman
2pfthe
for XC2bypass 2p(200 Hz)(56
capacitor PHYS-2211:
Æ)
for this circuit. YouBJT Amplifiers
can always useThisand Oscillators
is the minimum value for 2pftheXC2bypass2p(20014 for tÆ
Hz)(56
capacitor
This is
a larger the minimum
value, valueand
although cost forphysical
the bypass sizecapacitor
This is
maythe for this
minimum
impose circuit.
value
limitations. Youthe
for can always
bypass useThis is
capacitor for this
the circuit.
minimum You
value can
for always
the use
bypass capacitor fo
This is the minimum value a larger value, although cost and physical size may impo
a larger value, although costforand
thephysical
bypass capacitor
size may for this limitations.
impose circuit. You can always use
a larger value, although cost and physical size may This is the
impose
a larger minimum
value, value
limitations.
although costforand
thephysical
bypass capacitor
size may imfo
 RC
Av ! Equation 6– 8
RE1

Solved Problem
MPLE 6–7 Determine the voltage gain of the swamped amplifier in Figure 6–19. Assume that the
Problem (4): In the amplifier shown below, the bypass capacitor has a negligible reactance for
bypass capacitor has a negligible reactance for the frequency at which the amplifier is
the frequency atoperated.
which theAssume
amplifier
r¿e is
= operated,
20 Æ. and r’e = 20 Ω. (a) Determine the voltage gain,
(b) What would be the voltage gain without C2?, and (C) What would be the voltage gain with C2
bypassing both RE1 and RE2? Check the thermal stability of the ideal voltage gain in each case.
! FIGURE 6–19
RC 3.3 k VCC
(a) Av = = = 9.43 +10 V
reʹ + RE1 20 + 330
RE1 330
S Av = = = 16.5 > 10 ⇒ stable RC
C3
reʹ 20 R1 3.3 k!
33 k! Vou t
RC 3.3 k C1
(b) Av = = = 4.85 1 µF
re + RE1 + RE2 20 + 330 + 330
ʹ Vin
1 µF
R +R 330 + 330 RE1
S Av = E1 E2 = = 33 > 10 ⇒ more stable R2 330 !
reʹ 20
10 k!
RE2 C2
R 3.3 k
(c) Av = C = = 165, always unstable 330 ! 10 µ F
re
ʹ 20

© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 15

Solution RE2 is bypassed by C2. RE1 is more than ten times r¿e so the approximate voltage gain is
 Vs Vs
Is = Is =
Rs + Rin(t
s +ot)Rin(tot)
Current and Power Gains of the CE Amplifier
! FIGURE 6–24 6–24
! FIGURE Vc Vc
Rin(tot) Rin(tot)
• The ideal current gain of the CE amplifier is
Signal currents (directions
Signal currents shown shown
(directions are are Is Is Ib Ib Ic I c Ic I L
defined in terms of currents at the Vb Vb
for the for
positive half-cycle
the positive of Vs ). of Vs ).
transistor’s terminals, ashalf-cycle
follows:
I Rs Rs
Ai ≡ ideal current gain = c = β ac + + RC RVcL RcL
Ib
Vs Vs R1 || R2 R1 || IRbias
2 Ibias
• The overall current gain is defined in terms
– –
of currents at the circuit’s terminals:
I
Aiʹ ≡ overall current gain = L ,
Is
VL R s + Rin(tot ) VL R s + Rin(tot ) R s + Rin(tot )
VL Vs Aiʹ = = = Avʹ
where: I L = , I s = RL Vs Vs RL RL
RL R s + Rin(tot )

• The overall power gain of an amplifier is defined in terms of powers at the amplifier terminals:
load power VL I L ⎛VL ⎞ ⎛ I L ⎞
Aʹp ≡ overall power gain = = = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = Avʹ Aiʹ
source power Vs I s ⎝Vs ⎠ ⎝ I s ⎠
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 16
 CE Amplifier Characteristics
Vb Rout
• Rin( base) ≡ input base resistance =
Ib
Vin Ic I out Vout
• Rin(tot ) ≡ total input resistance =
I in Vc
Vout Rin(tot ) Rin(base ) Ic IL
• Rout ≡ output resistance = Rs
I out Vs →s.c.
Ib

• Av ≡ ideal voltage gain =

Vc Vin Vb
IIss I in VL RL
Vb Ve Ie
VL Vc Vs
• Avʹ ≡ overall voltage gain = =
Vs Vs
Av Vs R s + Rin(tot )
• Attenuation ≡ = = ≥1
Avʹ Vb Rin(tot )
Ic
• Ai ≡ ideal current gain = = β ac CE Amplifier
Ib
IL
• Aiʹ ≡ overall current gain = , • Ap = Av Ai , • Aʹp = Avʹ Aiʹ
Is
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 17
 Solved Problem (1/4)
A MPLIFIERSProblem (5): For the common-emitter amplifier shown below, (a) Determine the DC collector
voltage, (b) Calculate Rin(base) and Rin(tot), (c) Determine the AC base and collector voltages,
(d) Calculate the overall voltage, current, and power gains, (e) Draw the total collector voltage
waveform, and (f) Draw the source and output voltage waveforms on common axes.
6–20
VCC
+10 V βDC = 150
βac = 175
RC
R1 4.7 k! C3
Vout
C1 47 k!
Vin
10 µ F
RL
10 µ F
47 k!
Rs R2 RE1
600 ! 10 k! 470 !

Vs RE2 C2
10 mV 470 ! 100 µ F
(rms)

© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 18

 Solved Problem (2/4)
) Determine the dc bias values using the dc equivalent circuit in Figure 6 –21.

DC Circuit AC Circuit
FIGURE 6–21
C equivalent for the R
VCC Rin(tot ) Rin(base )
VTH = VCC circuit
2 in +10 V
gure 6 –20. R1 + R 2
10 k RC
= 10 R1 4.7 k!
47 k + 10 k 47 k!
= 1.75 V βDC = 150
R TH = R1 R 2 = 8.25 kΩ (rms)

VTH = I ERE +VBE + I BR TH RE1

470 ! 25 mV 25 mV
IC R2 reʹ ≅ = = 23.58 Ω
≅ I CRE +VBE + R TH 10 k! IE 1.06 mA
Active β DC RE2
470 ! V I (r ʹ + RE1 )
Rin( base) = b = e e = β ac (reʹ + RE1 )
VTH −VBE Ib Ib
IC ≅
RE + (R TH β DC) = 175 × (23.58 + 470 ) = 86.38 kΩ
1.75 − 0.7 Rin( tot ) = R1 R 2 Rin( base) = 47 k 10 k 86.38 k = 7.53 kΩ
= = 1.06 mA ≅ I E
(470 + 470) (
+ 8.25 k 150) Rin( totcircuit 7.53 k
pply Thevenin’s theorem and Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the base-emitter
Vb = )
Vs in= 10 m = 9.26 mV (rms)
gure 6V–21.
C = VCC − I R
C C = 10 − 1.06 m × 4.7 k = 5.02 V R s + R in ( tot ) 600 + 7.53 k
© Dr. EzzeldinRSoliman
1R2 (47 kÆ)(10 kÆ)PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 19
RTH = = = 8.25 kÆ
R1 + R2 47 kÆ + 10 kÆ
 Solved Problem (3/4)
AC Circuit (Cont.)
Vb 9.26 m
Ic ≅ Ie = = = 18.76 µA (rms)
re + RE1 23.58 + 470
ʹ
Vc = I c × (RC RL ) = 18.76 µ × 4.27 k = 80.11 mV (rms)
Vb 9.26 m
= β ac I b (RC RL ) = β ac (R C R L ) = 175 4.27 k = 80.11 mV (rms)
Rin( base) 86.38 k
VL Vc 80.11 m
Avʹ = = = = 8.011
Vs Vs 10 m
Vs 10 m
Is = = = 1.23 µA (rms)
R s + Rin(tot ) 600 + 7.53 k
VL Vc 80.11 m
IL = = = = 1.7 µA (rms)
RL RL 47 k
I L 1.7 µ
Aiʹ = = = 1.38
I s 1.23 µ
Aʹp = Avʹ Aiʹ = 8.011×1.38 = 11.055
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 20
BJT A MPLIFIERS

Solved Problem (4/4)

GURE 6–23

total collector voltage

5.13VV
4.86
es for Figure 6–20.
Vc ( peak ) = 2 Vc ( rms )
= 2 × 80.28 mV V 4.74 VC
c 5.02VV
= 113.5 mV
= 0.114 V
4.91VV
4.62 Vc
(a) Total collector voltage

source and output voltages

Vout
out = Vc
+119 mV
+114 mV
Vs

0
0V

–119 mV
−114 mV
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman (b) Sou rce and PHYS-2211:
ou tpu t ac voltages
BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 21
 or

Feedback
k Oscillators
fraction
Oscillators
One type
signaloftothe
Essentially,
the output
an
of oscillatorOne
is the
signal
type Feedback Oscillators
oscillator
feedback converts
of oscillator
to oscillator
the input
oscillator,
shift,with
the
no net
feedback
iselectrical
which energy
returns aoscillator,
from the which
dc power supply
returns a to periodic
of the output waveforms.
input withA no
basic
net phase isresulting
shown inaphase
in Figure shift,
16–1.
reinforce- resulting in a reinforce-
the outputment
signal.
ofAfter oscillations
the output are After
started,oscillations
the loop gainare is maintained theatloop
1.0 gain is maintained at 1.0
• The oscillator is asignal.
device that converts started,
electrical energy from the DC power supply to periodic
ain oscillations.
toAC A feedback
maintain oscillator consists of an amplifier for gain (either
oscillations. A feedback oscillator consists of an amplifier a for gain (either a
waveforms.
transistor discrete
or an op-amp) and aorpositive feedbackandcircuit that produces phase shift that produces phase shift
!
transistor an op-amp) a positive feedback circuit Th
ides attenuation, as shown in Figure 16–2.
and provides attenuation, as shown in Figure 16–2.
or th
VCC ! FIGURE 16–2
! FVI G U R E 1 6 – 2
fo
VCC out
dc supply voltage Basic elements of a
Oscillator feedback sa
oscillator. Basic elements of a feedback or
oscillator.
Amplifier Vout
Amplifier Vout
Feedback Oscillators One type of oscillator is the feedback oscillator, which returns a
fraction of the output signal to the input with no net phase shift, resulting in a reinforce-
ment of the output signal. After oscillations are started, the loop gain is maintained at 1.0
Feedback
to maintain oscillations. A feedback oscillator consists of an amplifier for gain (either a
circuit
discrete transistor
Attenuation or an op-amp) and a positive feedback circuit that produces phase shift
Feedback
+
and provides attenuation,
circuit as shownoscillator
in Figure is
16–2.
Phase shift • The feedback
Attenuation
created by forming a closed loop
consisting
+ of an amplifier with voltage gain (Av) and a feedback
VCC ! FIGURE 16–2
circuit
Phase shiftwith attenuation (B).
Oscillator Basic elements of a feedback
oscillator.
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 22
Oscillator
 tion, we willtion, we will
examine thisexamine
concept this
and concept andgeneral
look at the look atconditions
the generalrequired
conditions required for oscil-
for oscil-
lation
lation to occur. to occur.
Feedback Feedbackare
oscillators oscillators are widely
widely used usedsinusoidal
to generate to generatewaveforms.
sinusoidal waveforms.
Afterthis
After completing completing
section, this
you section, you
should be should
able to be able to
❏

Conditions of Oscillation
❏ Discuss
Discuss the principlethe
❏ Explain
❏ Explain positive
onprinciple on which
which feedback
positive feedback
feedback
◆ Define oscillation
◆ Define oscillation
feedbackisoscillators
oscillators based is based

theDescribe
❏ Describe ❏ thefor
conditions conditions for oscillation
oscillation
• In order to maintain the state of stable oscillation, the waveform at the
◆ Define
◆ Define closed loop closed
gain loop gain end point of the
❏ Discuss the Discuss therequired
❏ conditions conditions
for required
oscillatorfor oscillator start-up
start-up
feedback loop should match exactly the waveform at its start point.

• This can be stated mathematically as follows:

Positive Feedback
Positive Feedback
Acl ≡ voltage gain along Positive
the closed loop
Positive
feedback
= Av Bis=characterized
is feedback
characterized
1 by the
by the condition condition
wherein wherein
a portion a portion
of the outputof the output voltage
voltage
of an
of an amplifier amplifier
is fed back toisthe
fedinput
back with
to thenoinput with no
net phase net resulting
shift, phase shift,
in aresulting in a reinforcement
reinforcement
of the output signal. This basic idea is illustrated in Figure 16–3(a).
of the output signal. This basic idea is illustrated in Figure 16–3(a). As you can see, the in- As you can see, the in-
• Either non-inverting or inverting
phase feedbackamplifier
phase
voltage, Vf,can
feedback is beVused
voltage,
amplifiedf, is in the
to amplified
produce closed
to produce
the output theloop
output
voltage, whichof the
voltage,
in oscillator:
turnwhich
pro- in turn pro-
duces the
duces the feedback feedback
voltage. Thatvoltage.
is, a loopThat is, a loop
is created in is created
which the in which
signal the signal
sustains itselfsustains
and itself and
Using Non-Inverting Amplifier Using Inverting Amplifier
In phase In phase Out of phase Out of phase

Vf Vf Av Vf Vf Av
Av Vout Vout Av Vout Vout

Noninverting Noninverting Inverting Inverting

amplifier amplifier amplifier amplifier

Feedback Feedback Feedback Feedback

circuit circuit circuit circuit

Feedback
(a)
circuit introduces no phase shift
(a) (b)
Feedback
(b)
circuit introduces 180o phase shift
! ! FIGURE 16–3
FIGURE 16–3
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman Positive feedback PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators
Positive feedback
produces produces oscillation.
oscillation. 23
 Start-Up Conditions
• The power supply turn-on transients generates all frequency components in the oscillator loop.
• By designing either the amplifier or the feedback circuit to be frequency selective, only the
desired frequency component is allowed to circulate within the closed loop.
• Initially, the amplitude of this frequency component is so weak and it needs to be amplified up
to the desired level. This requires Acl > 1 at start-up.
O SCILL ATORS
• After the desired level is reached, Acl should drop back to 1, for maintaining stable oscillations.
• Such gain behavior can be achieved using certain types of amplifiers.
t0
VCC

Vout
Av
t0

Acl = Av B

B f
Acl > 1 Acl = 1
Frequency Selective
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman
! FIGURE 16–5
PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 24
When oscillation starts at t0, the condition Acl ! 1 causes the sinusoidal output voltage amplitude to
build up to a desired level. Then A decreases to 1 and maintains the desired amplitude.
 One basic type of resonant circuit feedback oscillator is the
inventor—as are most of the others we cover here. As shown in
oscillator uses an LC circuit in the feedback loop to provide the
Colpitts Oscillator (1/2)
to act as a resonant filter that passes onlythe desired frequency

FIGURE 16–16 +VCC

• The circuit besides represents the
!

ColpittsA oscillator.
basic Colpitts oscillator with a BJT
as the gain element.

R1 R3
• The amplifier used is a common- C5
emitter (CE) BJT amplifier. C3 Vout

• The feedback circuit is a frequency

Amplifier
selective ideal parallel resonance R2 R4 C4
circuit, whose resonance frequency
can be expressed as:
1
f0 = ,
2π LCT L
C1 C2 Feedback
where : CT ≡ total capacitance circuit
C1 C2
=
C1 + C2
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 25
The approximate frequency of oscillation is the resonant f
and is established bythe values of C1, C2 , and L according to th
 Colpitts Oscillator (2/2)
• The attenuation (B) of the feedback circuit can ! FI
be expressed as follows: Vf The a
Av Vout
V −I X C1 X the o
B ≡ attenuation = f ≅ = − C1
Vout I X C 2 XC2 the in
Vf /Vo
1 (2πf0C1) C2
=− =− L must
1 (2πf0C2 ) C1

• The -ve sign indicates that the feedback

circuit introduces 180o phase shift, which is Out Vf II Vout In
required to compensate the 180o introduced by C1 C2
the CE amplifier. - + - +

f V out V
• Knowing B, the gain of the amplifier can be
obtained such that the condition of oscillation
is satisfied:
V 1 C
Acl = Av B = 1 ⇒ Av = out = = − 1
Vf B C2
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman whereBJT
PHYS-2211: Av isAmplifiers
the voltage gain
and of the amplifier, which is represen
Oscillators 26
16–17. With this condition met, AvB = (C1/C2 )(C2 /C1) = 1.
be self-starting, AvB must be greater than 1 (that is, AvB 7 1)
 O SCILL ATORS WITH LC F EEDBACK C I RC U I T S ◆

Solved Problem
! FIGURE 16–21
+12 V
Problem (6): (a) Determine the frequency of
oscillation for the oscillator shown besides.
(b) Calculate the gain of the used amplifier
which maintains stable oscillation. R1 R3
C5
C1 C2 Vout
CT = C3
C1 + C2
0.1 µ × 0.01µ
= = 0.0091 µF
0.1 µ + 0.01µ
R2 R4 C4
1
f0 =
2π LCT
1 L
= = 7.46 KHz
2π 50 m × 0.0091 µ 50 mH
C1 C2
C 0.1 µ
Av = − 1 = − = −10
C2 0.01µ
0.1 µ F 0.01 µ F

© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 27

C1C2 (0.1 mF)(0.01 mF)
Solution (a) CT = = = 0.0091 mF
 The Hartley Oscillator
The Hartley oscillator is similar to the Colpitts ex cept that the
Hartley Oscillator
two series inductors and a parallel capacitor as shown in Fig ure

! FIGURE 16–23 +VCC

• Interchanging capacitor(s) and inductor(s)
A basic Hartley oscillator.
in Colpitts oscillator, results in Hartley
oscillator shown besides.
R1 R3
C2 C4
• The frequency of oscillation is:
C1 Vout
1
f0 = ,
2π LT C
where : LT ≡ total inductance = L1 + L2 Amplifier
R2 R4 C3

• The attenuation (B) of the feedback circuit

and the gain (Av) of the amplifier can be
expressed as follows:
HISTORY NOTE
C5 Feedback
V −I X L1Ralph XVinton 2πf0L1 L Vf I
+ Vout
L1 L2
B= f ≅ = − L1 = Lyon
− Hartley=− 1 - + - circuit
Vout I X L2 (1888–1970)
X L2 invented
2πf0Lthe
2 L2
Hartley
oscillator and the Hartley
V 1 L2
Av = out = = −transform, a mathematical analysis
Vf B method,
L1 which contributed to the
foundations of information theory. In this circuit, the freq uency of oscillation for Q 7 10 is
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman
In 1915 he was in charge ofPHYS-2211:
radio BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 28
1
receiver development for the Bell fr !
2 p1L C
 Solved Problem
Problem (7): Find L1 and L2 that should be used in the Hartly oscillator configuration to achieve
a frequency of oscillation of 7 kHz, using a capacitor of 0.01 µF. The amplifier used has a
voltage gain of -25.
L2
Av = − = −25 ⇒ L2 = 25L1
L1
1
f0 = ⇒
2π LT C
1 1
LT = 2 2
= 2
≅ 0.05 H = 50 mH
4π C f0 4π × 0.01µ × (7k)
2

= L1 + L2 = L1 + 25L1 = 26L1
LT 50 mH
L1 = = = 1.92 mH ≅ 2 mH
26 26
L2 = 25L1 = 25 × 2 m = 50 mH

© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 29

 1
fr !
2P 1LpriC1
Armstrong Oscillator
• In this oscillator, a +VCC ! F
transformer is used as a A ba
feedback circuit.
R3 C4
• The frequency of oscillation R1
Vout Feedback circuit
is determined as follows: C3 Vf
1
f0 =
2π Lpri C1
Lpri Lsec

• The attenuation (B) of the R2 R4 C2 C1

feedback circuit and the gain
(Av) of the amplifier are:
V N
B = f = − sec = −n
Vout N pri
Crystal-Controlled
Vout 1 1 Oscillators
• This oscillator is rarely used because of the cost and size
Av = = =−
TheVfmostB stable of its
n and accurate type of transformer.
feedback oscillator uses a piezoelectric crystal in the
© Dr. feedback loop to control the freq
Ezzeldin Soliman uency.
PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 30
The Piezoelectric Effect Quartz is one type of crystalline substance found in nature that H
 Solved Problem
Problem (8): A common-emitter amplifier with voltage gain of -10 is available. Find the turns
ratio n of the transformer that should be used to build an Armstrong oscillator. If the desired
resonance frequency is 10 kHz, find the inductance Lpri to be connected in parallel with a
capacitor of 0.1 µF. Calculate also Lsec for such an oscillator.
1
Av = − = −10 ⇒ n = 0.1
n
1
f0 = ⇒
2π Lpri C1
1 1
Lpri = 2 2
= 2
≅ 2.5 mH
4π C1 f0 4π 2 × 0.1 µ × (10 k)
Lsec I sec = N sec Φ sec single ⇒
loop

Φ sec single Φ pri single ⎛ Φ pri single ⎞

loop loop ⎜ loop ⎟
Lsec = N sec = n N pri = n 2 N pri = n 2Lpri = 0.12 × 2.5 m = 0.025 mH
I sec I pri n ⎜⎜ I pri ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
© Dr. Ezzeldin Soliman PHYS-2211: BJT Amplifiers and Oscillators 31