The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves have a vast range of practical everyday applications that includes
such diverse uses as communication by cell phone and radio broadcasting, WiFi, cooking,
vision, medical imaging, and treating cancer. In this module, we discuss how
electromagnetic waves are classified into categories such as radio, infrared, ultraviolet,
and so on. We also summarize some of the main applications for each range. The
different categories of electromagnetic waves differ in their wavelength range, or
equivalently, in their corresponding frequency ranges. Their properties change smoothly
from one frequency range to the next, with different applications in each range.

Radio Waves

The term radio waves refers to electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths greater than
about Radio waves are commonly used for audio communications (i.e., for
radios), but the term is used for electromagnetic waves in this range regardless of their
application. Radio waves typically result from an alternating current in the wires of a
broadcast antenna. They cover a very broad wavelength range and are divided into many
subranges, including microwaves, electromagnetic waves used for AM and FM radio,
cellular telephones, and TV signals. There is no lowest frequency of radio waves, but ELF
waves, or “extremely low frequency” are among the lowest frequencies commonly
encountered, from to The accelerating charge in the ac currents of
electrical power lines produce electromagnetic waves in this range. ELF waves are able
to penetrate sea water, which strongly absorbs electromagnetic waves of higher
frequency, and therefore are useful for submarine communications.

In order to use an electromagnetic wave to transmit information, the amplitude, frequency,

or phase of the wave is modulated, or varied in a controlled way that encodes the intended
information into the wave. In AM radio transmission, the amplitude of the wave is
modulated to mimic the vibrations of the sound being conveyed. Fourier’s theorem implies
that the modulated AM wave amounts to a superposition of waves covering some narrow
frequency range. Each AM station is assigned a specific carrier frequency that, by
international agreement, is allowed to vary by In FM radio transmission, the
frequency of the wave is modulated to carry this information, as illustrated in Figure
13.5.2, and the frequency of each station is allowed to use on each side of
its carrier frequency. The electromagnetic wave produces a current in a receiving
antenna, and the radio or television processes the signal to produce the sound and any
image. The higher the frequency of the radio wave used to carry the data, the greater the
detailed variation of the wave that can be carried by modulating it over each time unit,
and the more data that can be transmitted per unit of time.
 Figure 13.5.2 Electromagnetic waves are used to carry communications signals by
varying the wave’s amplitude (AM), its frequency (FM), or its phase.

Cell phone conversations, and television voice and video images are commonly
transmitted as digital data, by converting the signal into a sequence of binary ones and
zeros. This allows clearer data transmission when the signal is weak, and allows using
computer algorithms to compress the digital data to transmit more data in each frequency
range. Computer data as well is transmitted as a sequence of binary ones and zeros,
each one or zero constituting one bit of data.

Microwaves

Microwaves are the highest-frequency electromagnetic waves that can be produced by

currents in macroscopic circuits and devices. Microwave frequencies range from
about to nearly Their high frequencies correspond to short
wavelengths compared with other radio waves—hence the name “microwave.”
Microwaves also occur naturally as the cosmic background radiation left over from the
origin of the universe. Along with other ranges of electromagnetic waves, they are part of
the radiation that any object above absolute zero emits and absorbs because of thermal
agitation, that is, from the thermal motion of its atoms and molecules. Most satellite-
transmitted information is carried on microwaves. Radar is a common application of
microwaves. By detecting and timing microwave echoes, radar systems can determine
the distance to objects as diverse as clouds, aircraft, or even the surface of Venus.

Microwaves of are commonly used in microwave ovens. The electrons in a water

molecule tend to remain closer to the oxygen nucleus than the hydrogen nuclei (Figure
13.5.3). This creates two separated centeres of equal and opposite charges, giving the
molecule a dipole moment (see Electric Field). The oscillating electric field of the
microwaves inside the oven exerts a torque that tends to align each molecule first in one
direction and then in the other, with the motion of each molecule coupled to others around
it. This pumps energy into the continual thermal motion of the water to heat the food. The
plate under the food contains no water, and remains relatively unheated.

(Figure 13.5.3)

Figure 13.5.3 The oscillating electric field

in a microwave oven exerts a torque on water molecules because of their dipole moment,
and the torque reverses direction times per second. Interactions between
the molecules distributes the energy being pumped into them. The and denote
the charge distribution on the molecules.

The microwaves in a microwave oven reflect off the walls of the oven, so that the
superposition of waves produces standing waves, similar to the standing waves of a
vibrating guitar or violin string. A rotating fan acts as a stirrer by reflecting the microwaves
in different directions, and food turntables, help spread out the hot spots.

Infrared Radiation

The boundary between the microwave and infrared regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum is not well defined (see Figure 13.5.1). Infrared radiation is generally produced
by thermal motion, and the vibration and rotation of atoms and molecules. Electronic
transitions in atoms and molecules can also produce infrared radiation. About half of the
solar energy arriving at Earth is in the infrared region, with most of the rest in the visible
part of the spectrum. About of the solar energy is absorbed in the atmosphere,
about 48% is absorbed at Earth’s surface, and about is reflected back into space.1

The range of infrared frequencies extends up to the lower limit of visible light, just below
red. In fact, infrared means “below red.” Water molecules rotate and vibrate particularly
well at infrared frequencies. Reconnaissance satellites can detect buildings, vehicles, and
even individual humans by their infrared emissions, whose power radiation is proportional
to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. More mundanely, we use infrared lamps,
including those called quartz heaters, to preferentially warm us because we absorb
infrared better than our surroundings.
The familiar handheld “remotes” for changing channels and settings on television sets
often transmit their signal by modulating an infrared beam. If you try to use a TV remote
without the infrared emitter being in direct line of sight with the infrared detector, you may
find the television not responding. Some remotes use Bluetooth instead and reduce this
annoyance.

Visible Light

Visible light is the narrow segment of the electromagnetic spectrum between

about and about to which the normal human eye responds. Visible
light is produced by vibrations and rotations of atoms and molecules, as well as by
electronic transitions within atoms and molecules. The receivers or detectors of light
largely utilize electronic transitions.

Red light has the lowest frequencies and longest wavelengths, whereas violet has the
highest frequencies and shortest wavelengths (Figure 13.5.4). Blackbody radiation from
the Sun peaks in the visible part of the spectrum but is more intense in the red than in the
violet, making the sun yellowish in appearance.

(Figure 13.5.4)

Figure 13.5.4 A small part of the electromagnetic spectrum that includes its visible
components. The divisions between infrared, visible, and ultraviolet are not perfectly
distinct, nor are those between the seven rainbow colors.

Living things—plants and animals—have evolved to utilize and respond to parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum in which they are embedded. We enjoy the beauty of nature
through visible light. Plants are more selective. Photosynthesis uses parts of the visible
spectrum to make sugars.

Ultraviolet Radiation

Ultraviolet means “above violet.” The electromagnetic frequencies of ultraviolet

radiation (UV) extend upward from violet, the highest-frequency visible light. The highest-
frequency ultraviolet overlaps with the lowest-frequency X-rays. The wavelengths of
ultraviolet extend from down to about at its highest frequencies.
Ultraviolet is produced by atomic and molecular motions and electronic transitions.
UV radiation from the Sun is broadly subdivided into three wavelength ranges: UV-A () is
the lowest frequency, then UV-B () and UV-C (). Most UV-B and all UV-C are absorbed
by ozone () molecules in the upper atmosphere. Consequently, of the solar UV radiation
reaching Earth’s surface is UV-A.

Sunburn is caused by large exposures to UV-B and UV-C, and repeated exposure can
increase the likelihood of skin cancer. The tanning response is a defense mechanism in
which the body produces pigments in inert skin layers to reduce exposure of the living
cells below. Besides the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation, there are also benefits of
exposure in nature and uses in technology. Vitamin D production in the skin results from
exposure to UV-B radiation, generally from sunlight. Several studies suggest vitamin D
deficiency is associated with the development of a range of cancers (prostate, breast,
colon), as well as osteoporosis. Low-intensity ultraviolet has applications such as
providing the energy to cause certain dyes to fluoresce and emit visible light, for example,
in printed money to display hidden watermarks as counterfeit protection.

X-Rays

X-rays have shorter wavelengths, and higher frequencies, than ultraviolet, so that the
energy they transfer at an atomic level is greater. As a result, X-rays have adverse effects
on living cells similar to those of ultraviolet radiation, but they are more penetrating.
Cancer and genetic defects can be induced by X-rays. Because of their effect on rapidly
dividing cells, X-rays can also be used to treat and even cure cancer.The widest use of
X-rays is for imaging objects that are opaque to visible light, such as the human body or
aircraft parts. In humans, the risk of cell damage is weighed carefully against the benefit
of the diagnostic information obtained.

Gamma Rays

Soon after nuclear radioactivity was first detected in 1896, it was found that at least three
distinct types of radiation were being emitted, and these were designated as alpha, beta,
and gamma rays. The most penetrating nuclear radiation, the gamma ray ( ray), was
later found to be an extremely high-frequency electromagnetic wave.

The lower end of the ray frequency range overlaps the upper end of the X-ray range.
Gamma rays have characteristics identical to X-rays of the same frequency—they differ
only in source. The name “gamma rays” is generally used for electromagnetic radiation
emitted by a nucleus, while X-rays are generally produced by bombarding a target with
energetic electrons in an X-ray tube. At higher frequencies, rays are more penetrating
and more damaging to living tissue. They have many of the same uses as X-rays,
including cancer therapy. Gamma radiation from radioactive materials is used in nuclear
medicine.