Topic 3: Process-Based Theories of Motivation

Process-based theories of motivation focus on the psychological processes that influence

an individual's motivation to act in certain ways. Unlike content theories of motivation, which
focus on identifying specific factors or needs that drive behavior, process-based theories delve
into the cognitive mechanisms and thought processes that underlie motivation. These theories
aim to understand how individuals perceive, interpret, and respond to various stimuli in their
environment, ultimately influencing their motivation levels.

Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory of motivation is a psychological theory proposed by Victor H. Vroom
in 1964. It suggests that an individual's motivation to engage in a particular behavior is
influenced by their expectations about the outcomes of that behavior and the perceived value of
those outcomes. In simple terms, people are motivated to act in ways that they believe will lead
to desired outcomes.

Expectancy theory has significant implications for understanding motivation in various

contexts, such as the workplace, education, and personal goal setting. It suggests that individuals
are motivated when they believe that their efforts will lead to successful performance, resulting
in rewards that they value. The theory is based on three key components:

Expectancy (Effort-Performance Link): This component refers to the belief that exerting
effort will lead to successful performance. In other words, individuals assess the likelihood that
their efforts will result in the desired level of performance. If they believe that putting in effort
will likely lead to success, they are more likely to be motivated to exert effort.

Instrumentality (Performance-Reward Link): Instrumentality is the belief that successful

performance will be rewarded. Individuals evaluate whether achieving the desired level of
performance will result in receiving the expected rewards or outcomes. If they believe that
performance will lead to rewards that are valuable to them, they are more motivated to engage in
the behavior.

Valence (Value of Outcomes): Valence refers to the value or attractiveness of the

outcomes or rewards associated with performance. Different individuals may have different
preferences for rewards, and the perceived value of outcomes varies from person to person. The
valence represents the extent to which individuals desire or are satisfied with the expected
outcomes. Higher valence leads to higher motivation.
Equity Theory
The Equity Theory of Motivation, or Adam's Equity Theory, was developed in 1963 by
workplace behavioral psychologist John Stacey Adams. The foundation of equity theory is based
on the idea that people are driven by fairness. To put it simply, equity theory says that when
someone notices a disparity between themselves and a peer, they will modify their effort to make
the situation more equitable in their perspective.

Adams' Equity Theory of Motivation proposes that individuals are motivated by perceptions
of fairness in social exchanges. It suggests that people strive to maintain a balance between their
inputs (such as effort, time, skills) and the outcomes (such as rewards, recognition, benefits) they
receive from their interactions with others, particularly in the workplace

Inputs are defined as those things that an individual does in order to receive an output. They
are the contribution the individual makes to the organization.
Outputs (sometimes referred to as outcomes) are the result an individual receives as a result
of their inputs to the organization. Some of these benefits will be tangible, such as salary, but
others will be intangible, such as recognition.
According to Adam's Equity Theory, people don't only grasp equity in an empty space;
rather, they look around them and compare themselves against others. In the event they happen
to sense an imbalance, they will modify their inputs in order to make things right.

In simple terms, what we're stating is that people will constantly modify their inputs to
keep the system balanced. Therefore, a person would lose motivation if they think their outputs
are less than their inputs in comparison to those around them. In the same way, if a person's
output exceeds that of someone performing the exact same task, they might need to increase their
inputs. In essence, a person working for an organization will constantly make an effort to
maintain equity.

A referent group simply represents a group of individuals that one makes use of to make
comparisons. According to Adam's Equity Theory of Motivation, individuals evaluate
themselves in relation to four referent groups:

Self-inside: the individual’s experience within their current organization.

Self-outside: the individual’s experience with other organizations.

Others-inside: others within the individual’s current organization.

Others-outside: others outside of the individual organization.

Goal-Setting Theory

In the 1960s, Edwin Locke put forward the goal-setting theory of motivation. This
theory states that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. It states that specific and
challenging goals, along with appropriate feedback, contribute to higher and better task
performance.

Goal-setting theory is a motivational theory that emphasizes the importance of setting

specific, challenging goals in enhancing performance and motivation, this theory suggests that
individuals are motivated to work toward achieving goals that are clear, specific, and challenging
but achievable. In simple words, goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what
needs to be done and how much effort is required to be put in.

Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory is a psychological principle suggesting that behaviors are shaped
by their consequences, and that individual behaviors can be changed through reinforcement,
punishment and extinction. Behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner was instrumental in developing
modern ideas about reinforcement theory. According to Skinner, a person's internal needs and
drives are not important areas of concern because their current behaviors follow the law of effect
and are based on the consequences of former behaviors. This means that behaviors can be altered
or manipulated over time.
 Topic 6: Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory, also known as operant conditioning theory, is a psychological
concept that explains how behavior is influenced by the consequences that follow it.
The reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Skinner and his associates.
It states that an individual's behavior is a function of its consequences. It is based on the “law of
effect," i.e., an individual’s behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated, but an
individual's behavior with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.
The reinforcement theory of motivation overlooks the internal state of an individual, i.e.,
the inner feelings and drives of individuals are ignored by Skinner. This theory focuses totally on
what happens to an individual when he takes some action. Thus, according to Skinner, the
external environment of the organization must be designed effectively and positively so as to
motivate the employee. This theory is a strong tool for analyzing the controlling mechanisms of
an individual’s behavior. However, it does not focus on the causes of an individual's behavior.
The managers use the following methods for controlling the behavior of the employees:
Positive Reinforcement: This implies giving a positive response when an individual shows
positive and required behavior. For example, immediately praising an employee for coming early
for work This will increase the probability of outstanding behavior occurring again.
Reward is a positive reinforcer, but not necessarily. If and only if the employees’ behavior
improves, reward can be said to be a positive reinforcer. Positive reinforcement stimulates the
occurrence of a behavior. It must be noted that the more spontaneous the giving of reward, the
greater the reinforcement value it has.
Negative Reinforcement: This implies rewarding an employee by removing negative or
undesirable consequences. Both positive and negative reinforcement can be used to increase
desirable or required behavior.
Punishment implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the probability of repeating
undesirable behavior in the future.
In other words, punishment means applying undesirable consequences for showing undesirable
behavior.
For instance, suspend an employee for breaking the organizational rules. Punishment can be
equalized by positive reinforcement from an alternative source.
Extinction implies the absence of reinforcements.
In other words, extinction implies lowering the probability of undesired behavior by removing
reward for that kind of behavior.
For instance, if an employee no longer receives praise and admiration for his good work, he may
feel that his behavior is generating no fruitful consequence. Extinction may unintentionally lower
desirable behavior.
References:
https://www.strategies-for-managing-change.com/process-theories-of-
motivation.html
https://managementstudyguide.com/expectancy-theory-motivation.htm
https://expertprogrammanagement.com/2017/06/equity-theory/