IGNEOUS ROCKS FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

❖ Magma is the molten material which is formed when the pressure and - The terrestrial planets are the four closest to the sun and are all
temperature conditions are high enough to melt the rocks. similar to the Earth in density. They include Mercury, Venus,
❖ The Magma is formed in the interior of the earth and then gradually Earth and Mars. All four terrestrial planets are small, rocky and
migrates upwards to the earth’s crust. dense (3 g/cm3 or more).
❖ When it reaches the surface its cools and solidifies by the process of - The Jovian planets are those farther from the sun than Mars.
crystallization. The rocks formed as a result are known as Igneous Rocks. They include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. They are much
larger than the Earth but their densities are very low.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
❖ These igneous rocks when exposed to the atmosphere undergo The Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old and is believed that it was
weathering where they disintegrate into smaller particles. formed by accretion of small particles.
❖ These particles known as sediments are transported by the agents of
erosion such as water, wind, and ice. GEOLOGIC TIME
❖ Finally, these sediments are deposited. - The earth is estimated to be 4.6 billion Years old.
❖ These sediments are then converted to rocks by the process of - divided into Eons, Eras, Periods, and Epochs and is identified
lithification. primarily by the types of life that existed at the various times.
❖ The resulting rocks are known as Sedimentary Rocks.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
❖ If the resulting sedimentary rock is buried deep within Earth and involved
in the dynamics of mountain building or intruded by a mass of magma, it
will be subjected to great pressures and/or intense heat.
❖ The sedimentary rock will react to the changing environment and turn
into the third rock type, metamorphic rock.
❖ When metamorphic rock is subjected to additional pressure changes or
to still higher temperatures, it will melt, creating magma, which will
eventually crystallize into igneous rock, starting the cycle all over again.
ROCKS AND MINERALS A total of 91 elements occurs naturally in the Earth’s crust. However, eight
ROCK elements make up more than 98 percent of the earth’s crust. These elements
- A rock is any solid mass of mineral, or mineral-like, matter that are; Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium and
occurs naturally as part of our planet. Sodium.
MINERAL
- A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
characteristic chemical composition and a crystalline structure. ❖ An atom is the basic unit of an element.
Chemical composition and crystalline structure are the two most ❖ An atom is tiny; the diameter of the average atom is about 10ˉ10 meters.
important properties of a mineral: They distinguish any mineral from ❖ An atom consists of a small, dense, positively charged center called a
all others. Nucleus.
❖ The Nucleus contains dense particles with positive electric charge known
MINERALS ARE:
as Protons.
Naturally occurring - form by natural, geologic processes.
❖ and equally dense particles with neutral electric charges know as
Solid substance - Only solid crystalline substances
Neutrons.
Generally inorganic - do not contain compounds of organic carbon.
❖ The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged Electrons.
Orderly crystalline structure - atoms are arranged in an orderly,
❖ An electron is a fundamental particle; it is not made up of smaller
repetitive manner.
components. An electron orbits the nucleus, but not in a clearly.
Can be represented by a chemical formula.
❖ Atomic weight/mass of an atom is equal to the total number of Neutrons
+ Protons.
ELEMENTS & ATOM
❖ Atomic Number of an atom is equal to its number of Proton or Electron.
- An element cannot be broken into simpler particles by ordinary
❖ A charged atom is called an Ion.
chemical processes.
The forces that hold atoms and ions together to form compounds are called
- Most common minerals consist of a small number—usually two
CHEMICAL BONDS.
to five of different chemical elements.
CHEMICAL BONDS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
Four types of chemical bonds are found in minerals: 1. CRYSTAL HABIT - is the characteristic shape of a mineral and the
1. Ionic - Cations and anions are attracted by their opposite electronic charges manner in which aggregates of crystals grow.
and thus bond together. This union is called an ionic bond. 2. CLEAVAGE - is the tendency of some minerals to break along flat
2. Covalent - when two or more atoms share their electrons to produce the surfaces.
effect of filled outer electron shells. 3. FRACTURE - is the pattern in which a mineral breaks other than along
3. Metallic - collective sharing of a sea of valence electrons between several planes of cleavage.
positively charged metal ions 4. HARDNESS - is the resistance of a mineral to scratching.
4. Van der Waals forces - Weak electrical forces 5. SPECIFIC GRAVITY - is the weight of a substance in air divided by the
weight of an equal volume of water.
MATTER AND MINERALS 6. COLOR - is the most obvious property of a mineral, but it is commonly
- Most minerals are compounds. Minerals are always electrically unreliable for identification.
neutral 7. STREAK - is the color of a fine powder of a mineral.
8. LUSTER - is the manner in which a mineral reflects light
CRYSTALS - any substance whose atoms are arranged in a regular, periodically
repeated pattern.
UNIT CELL - small group of atoms, like a single brick in a wall, repeats itself
over and over.
CRYSTAL FACE - is a planar surface that develops if a crystal grows freely in
an uncrowded environment.
 ROCK TYPES
TYPES OF MINERALS • The Earth is almost entirely rock to a depth of 2900
➢ Rock Forming Minerals - make up the bulk of most rocks in kilometers, where the solid mantle gives way to the liquid
the Earth’s crust. outer core.
➢ Accessory minerals - are minerals that are common but
usually are found only in small amounts. ORIGIN OF THE MAGMA
➢ Gem - mineral that is prized primarily for its beauty, although In the asthenosphere (between depths of about 100 to 350
some gems, like diamonds, are also used industrially. kilometers), the temperature is so high that rocks melt in certain
➢ Ore minerals - minerals from which metals or other elements environments to form magma.
can be profitably recovered. - Under certain conditions, rocks of the upper mantle and lower
➢ Industrial Minerals - mined for purposes other than the crust melt, forming a hot liquid called magma.
extraction of metals. - The temperature of magma varies from about 600ºC to 1400ºC,
depending on its chemical composition and the depth at which it
MINERAL CLASSIFICATION forms.
SILICATES - Silicate minerals contain silicon (Si) and oxygen (O), the two FORMATION OF MAGMA
most abundant elements in the earth’s crust. rising temperature, decreasing pressure and, addition of water
OXIDES - made up of oxygen and one or more metals. Most magma consists of 3 distinct parts: a liquid component, a solid
SULFATES - contain sulfur and oxygen (SO4) combined with other component, and a gaseous phase.
elements.
SULFIDES - contain sulfur and a metal.
CARBONATES - contain carbonate (CO3), a combination of carbon and
oxygen, combined with other elements.
HALIDES – “common salt”. include such elements as chlorine and
fluorine.
NATIVE ELEMENTS - minerals that form as individual elements.
IGNEOUS ROCKS Pyroclastic Texture results from the explosive fragmentation of volcanic
- Igneous rocks which are formed when the molten magma material
solidifies at the earth’s surface are known as Extrusive Igneous Pegmatitic course grained igneous rocks.
Rocks or Volcanic Rocks.
- Igneous rocks which are formed by the crystallization of the NAMING IGNEOUS ROCKS
molten magma beneath the earth’s surface or at depths are Geologists use both the minerals and texture to classify and name igneous
known as Intrusive Igneous Rocks or Plutonic Rocks. rocks.
FELSIC (GRANITIC) IGNEOUS ROCKS
TEXTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
INTERMEDIATE (ANDESITIC) IGNEOUS ROCKS
Volcanic /extrusive igneous rocks are usually fine grained, whereas
MAFIC (BASALTIC) IGNEOUS ROCKS
plutonic/intrusive igneous rocks are medium or coarse grained.
ULTRAMAFIC IGNEOUS ROCKS
FACTORS AFFECTING CRYSTAL SIZE
(1) the rate at which molten rock cools;
(2) the amount of silica present and
(3) the amount of dissolved gases in the magma.

The resulting igneous rocks have a fine-grained texture which is known as

Aphanitic texture.
Phaneritic textured rocks are comprised of large crystals that are clearly
visible to the eye with or without a hand lens or binocular microscope.
Porphyritic are rocks with the large crystals, called phenocrysts, embedded
in a fine-grained matrix/ground mass.
Glassy textured igneous rocks are non-crystalline meaning the rock contains
no mineral grains.
Vesicular texture refers to vesicles (holes, pores, or cavities) within the
igneous rock.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The loose sediments after their deposition become compact and hard
Detrital sedimentary rocks consist of grains and particles that were eroded
to form sedimentary rock.
from weathered rocks and then were transported and deposited in loose,
FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS unconsolidated layers at the Earth’s surface.
Weathering begins the process. It involves the physical disintegration and Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed from materials that is carried in
chemical decomposition of preexisting igneous, metamorphic, solution to lakes and seas.
and sedimentary rocks. Organic Sedimentary Rocks - When plants die, their remains usually
Transportation moves these materials from the sites where they originated decompose by reaction with oxygen.
to locations where they accumulate.
Deposition Finally sediment settles out and accumulates after transport. BEDDING OR STRATIFICATION
As deposition continues, older sediments are buried beneath younger layers - Sedimentary rocks form as layer upon layer of sediment
and are gradually converted to sedimentary rock by compaction and accumulates in various depositional environments. These layers,
cementation. This and other changes are referred to as diagenesis (Changes called strata or beds.
that take place in texture, composition, and other physical properties after CROSS BEDDING AND GRADED BEDDING
sediments are deposited). - cross bedding is when sediments do not accumulate in horizontal
beds and are inclined to the horizontal.
DIAGENESIS - Graded beds is when the particles within a single sedimentary
- refers to all of the physical, chemical, and biological changes that layer gradually change from coarse at the bottom to fine at the
occur after sediments are deposited and during and after the top
time they are turned into sedimentary rock. RIPPLE MARKS
- Diagenesis includes lithification. - are small, nearly parallel sand ridges and troughs that are also
formed by moving water or wind.
MUD CRACKS
- are polygonal cracks that form when mud shrinks as it dries
FOSSILS
- formed during the time of disposition of rocks.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS METAMORPHIC ROCK TEXTURES
Metamorphism (from the Greek words for “changing form”) is the
The foliated textures develop in the sequence listed below as
process by which rising temperature and changes in other environmental
temperature and pressure increases.
conditions transform rocks and minerals.
Slaty cleavage is formed as a result of parallel foliation (layering) of

Contact or thermal metamorphism occurs where hot magma intrudes cooler fine-grained platy minerals (chlorite) in a direction perpendicular to

country rock. The country rock may be of any type—sedimentary, the direction of maximum stress. Exmaples of such rocks are Slate

metamorphic, or igneous. and Phyllite.

Hydrothermal metamorphism (also called hydrothermal alteration and Schistosity is formed as a result of the layering in a coarse grained,

metasomatism) occurs when hot water and ions dissolved in the hot water crystalline rock due to the parallel arrangement of platy mineral

react with a rock to change its chemical composition and minerals. grains such as muscovite and biotite.

Regional metamorphism occurs during the process of mountain building, Mineral Banding (Gneiss) is the layering in a rock in which bands or

great quantities of rocks are subjected to directed pressure and high lenses of granular minerals (quartz and feldspar) alternate with bands

temperatures associated with large scale deformation. or lenses in which platy (mica) or elongate (amphibole) minerals
predominate.
AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM
Non foliated textures are formed around igneous intrusions where
- Heat - atoms may combine differently at different temperatures. the temperatures are high but the pressures are relatively low and
- heat makes practically all chemical reactions go faster equal in all directions (confining pressure).
- Pressure
- Fluids serve only to speed up other metamorphic processes, or
perhaps even allow them to happen at all. Metamorphic Rocks are divided into two basic divisions

GRADE OF METAMORPHISM 1. Foliated/Banded

- High grade metamorphic rocks are greatly altered from its 2.Non-Foliated (also, granular or equidimensional)
original form and often have a completely different mineralogy
than the parent rock.
FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Slate is a fine grained (less than 0.5 mm) foliated rock composed of
mica flakes.

Phyllite: It represents a degree of metamorphism in between slate

and schist.

Schists are medium to coarse grained metamorphic rocks in which

platy minerals predominate.

Gneiss is the term applied to medium or coarse grained banded

metamorphic rocks in which granular and elongated minerals
predominate.

NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Marble: It is a coarse grained crystalline rock whose parent rock was

limestone or dolostone.

Quartzite: It is a very hard metamorphic rock formed from quartz

sandstone. They are formed under moderate to high grade
metamorphism