Module – 5

Power System Stability

STABILITY: The stability of a system refers to the ability of a system to return back to its
steady state when subjected to a disturbance.

Transient Stability
Steady State Stability
involves the study of The ability of a power
studies are restricted
the power system system to maintain
to small and gradual
following a major stability under gradual
changes in the system
disturbance. disturbances changing
operating conditions.
with time

Further these stabilities are classified as shown below:

18EE71 Power System Analysis – 2, Module – 5 Class Notes Page 1

 IMPROVEMENT OF POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

System parameters affecting stability are as followed:

i. Synchronous Machine parameters
ii. Transmission Line parameters
iii. Circuit Breaker & Relay characteristics
iv. System layout
v. Excitation system and governor characteristics
vi. Neutral grounding
Discrete Controls employed for improving the stability are as follows:
i. Auto -reclosing of circuit breakers
ii. Single-pole switching
iii. Resistor braking
iv. Generator dropping
v. Load shedding
vi. Series capacitor switching
vii. Shunt reactor/capacitor switching
viii. Boosting power on D.C links

DESIGN METHODS FOR IMPROVING TRANSIENT STABILITY

1. Improve the maximum power transfer capability

a. Implement and use higher system voltage levels
b. Install additional transmission lines.
c. Install lines and transformers with smaller reactance values
d. Install series capacitive transmission line compensation to reduce the overall reactance of
lines
e. Install static VAR compensators and flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS)
2. Implement high speed fault clearing
3. Implement high speed re-closure of circuit breakers
4. Implement single pole switching
5. Use generators with larger machine inertia and with lower transient reactance
6. Use fast responding, high gain exciters : The effect is to increase the generator output during the
fault and post fault periods. Critical clearing times are increased.
7. Implement fast valving : The fast valving acts to balance the mechanical and electrical powers.
This provides reduced acceleration and longer critical clearing times.
8. Braking Resistors
In power systems, areas of generation can be temporarily separated from the load areas.
When the separation occurs the breaking resister can be inserted into the generation area for a
second or two in order to slow the acceleration.

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 To reduce complexity of the transient stability analysis simplifying assumptions are made:

i. Each synchronous machine is represented by a constant voltage source behind the direct axis
transient reactance.
ii. The governor’s action are neglected and the input powers are assumed to remain constant.
iii. Using the pre-fault bus voltages, all loads are converted to equivalent admittances to ground
and are assumed to remain constant.
iv. Damping or asynchronous powers are ignored.
v. Mechanical rotor angle of each machine coincides with the angle of the voltage behind the
machine reactance.
vi. Machines belonging to the same station swing together and together are represented by one
equivalent machine.

Swing Equation

J is the total moment of inertia of the rotor mass in kgm2

T is the mechanical torque supplied by the prime mover in N-
m m
Te is the electrical torque output of the alternator in N-m
θ is the angular position of the rotor in rad

  r t  
where

δ is the angular position in radians with respect to the synchronously rotating reference
frame

Angular Velocity of the Rotor

Relative speed difference

18EE71 Power System Analysis – 2, Module - 5 Class Notes. AY : 2022 - 23 Page 3

Swing Equation

or

d 2
M 2  PS  Pe
dt
where

PS or Pm = Shaft Power or Mechanical Power Input to the Generator in MW

Pe = Electrical Power output from the Generator

Pa = Accelerating Power of the Machine or Generator in MW

Numerical Techniques for the Solution of Swing Equation

The transient stability analysis requires the solution of a system of coupled non-linear
differential equations. In general, no analytical solution of these equations exists. However,
techniques are available to obtain approximate solution of such differential equations by
numerical methods and one must therefore resort to numerical computation techniques
commonly known as digital simulation. Some of the commonly used numerical techniques
for the solution of the swing equation are:

i. Point by Point method

ii. Modified Euler's method
iii. Runge - Kutta method,
iv. Milne’s Predictor – Corrector Method

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 POINT - BY - POINT METHOD
Point by Point Solution, also known as Step-by-Step Solution is the most widely used
way of solving the swing equation. The following two steps are carried out alternately.

1. First, compute the angular position δ, and angular speed at the end of the time
interval using the formal solution of the swing equation from the knowledge of the
assumed value of the accelerating power and the values of δ, and d δ, /dt a the
beginning of the interval
2. Then compute the accelerating power of each machine from the knowledge of the
angular position at the end of the interval as computed in step 1.

Assumption: The accelerating power during the interval is assumed constant at its value
calculated for the middle of the interval. The desired formula for computing the change
in δ during the nth time interval is

t 2 
 n   n 1    Pa ( n 1)
 M 

where,

 n = change in angle during the nth time interval

 n 1 = Change in angle during the (n-1)th time interval

 t = length of time interval

Pa (n-1) = accelerating power at the beginning of the nth time interval

Due attention is given to the effects of discontinuities in the accelerating power P a which
occur, for example, when a fault is applied or removed or when any switching operation
takes place. If such a discontinuity occurs at the beginning of an interval, then the average
of the values of Pa before and after the discontinuity must be considered. Thus, in
computing the increment of angle occurring during first interval after a fault is applied at
t=0, the above equation becomes:

  t 2  Pa 0 
 1   
 M  2

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18EE71 Power System Analysis – 2, Module - 5 Class Notes. AY : 2022 - 23 Page 6
where

Pa0+ is the accelerating power immediately after the occurrence of the fault.

if the fault is cleared at the beginning of the mth interval, then for this interval,

Pa(m-1) = 0.5 [ Pa(m-1)- + Pa(m-1) + ]

Where

Pa(m-1)- is the accelerating power before clearing

Pa(m-1) + is that immediately after clearing the fault.

If the discontinuity occurs at the middle of the interval, no special treatment is needed.

ZBUS Building Algorithm (Step by Step Approach to form the ZBUS)

It is a step-by-step programmable technique which proceeds branch by branch. It has the
advantage that any modification of the network does not require complete rebuilding of
ZBUS Formulation. Consider that ZBUS Formulation has been formulated upto a certain stage
and another branch is now added. Then

Upon adding a new branch, one of the following situations is presented.

1. Zb is added from a new bus to the reference bus (i.e. a new branch is added and the
dimension of ZBUS goes up by one). This is type-I modification (also called as Type 0
Modification).
2. Zb is added from a new bus to an old bus (i.e., a new branch is added and the dimension
of ZBUS goes up by one). This is type-2 modification (also called as Type 1 Modification).
3. Zb connects an old bus to the reference branch (i.e., a new loop is formed but the
dimension of ZBUS does not change). This is type-3 modification (also called as Type 2
Modification).

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4. Zb connects two old buses or Addition of a link between two existing buses (i.e., new
loop is formed but the dimension of ZBUS does not change). This is type-4 modification
(also called as Type 4 Modification).
Notation used : i, j for — Old or Existing buses;
‘r’ for Reference Bus;
‘k’ for new bus
Type-1 Modification : Zb is added from a new bus to the reference bus

Figure 1 shows a passive (linear) n-bus network in which branch with a branch impedance
Zb is added to the new bus ‘ k ’ and the reference bus ‘ r ‘. Now

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Type-2 Modification : Zb is added from a new bus to an old bus

Branch impedance ‘Zb’ is added from new bus k to the old bus j as in Fig. 2. It follows from
this figure that

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Type–3 Modification : Zb is added from an old bus to the reference bus

Zb connects an old bus (j) to the reference bus (r) as in Fig. 3. This case follows
from Fig. 3 by connecting bus k to the reference bus r, i.e. by setting Vk = 0.

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Type-4 Modification : Addition of a link between two existing buses

Zb connects two old buses as in Fig. 4. Equations can be written as follows for all the
network buses.

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References :

1. Modern Power System Analysis, D.P. Kothari, McGraw Hill, 4th Edition 2011.

2. Power System Analysis, Haadi Sadat, McGraw Hill, 2nd Edition 2002.

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